ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES 



NEW ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



CONFORMED TO PRESENT USAGE 



WITH THE 



Objective Method of Teaching the Elements of the English Language 



BY 



ALFRED HOLBROOK 

President National Normal University 




Zhc Eclectic press 
VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY 

CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK 



\% 



V 



Tfc 1 '" 



COPYRIGHT, 1889, BY VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, & CO. 




I gladly avail myself of the opportunity presented by my 
publishers to make this revision of my grammars. For econ- 
omy to the purchaser, I have combined two books in one, thus 
placing the Training Lessons for preliminary drill in ad- 
vance of the several parts of speech to which these "Lessons" 
are designed to introduce the beginner. Thousands of teachers, 
by this "objective method" thus revealed, have converted the 
study of Grammar from a burdensome, hateful, useless process of 
memorizing definitions and rules, into an exciting and enthusiastic 
work of comprehending and applying principles in the correct 
use of the varying forms and arrangements of the English lan- 
guage. The study of Grammar has ceased to be a nuisance; 
it has become the most effective discipline for arousing the ob- 
servation ; for chaining attention ; for sharpening discrimination ; 
for establishing the habits of independent thought : of rapid yet 
cautious generalization; of acute and thorough analysis; of con- 
secutive and earnest application ; of a love for reading the best 
authors : in fact, the discipline thus secured by the competent 
and faithful teacher can not fail to introduce the pupil to the 
broadest field of intellectual and esthetic culture. All this has 
been accomplished by thousands, who have used these books in 
the Normal method here set forth, and can and will be by the 
thousands of teachers who are introducing these methods over 
the entire nation. 

But Grammar is not the only study ; other branches have un- 
dergone a similar revolution by the Normal methods, both in 
their processes and results. 

(iii) 



iv PREFACE. 

A few additions have been made to the constructions of vari- 
ous parts of speech, which will be found in their appropriate 
places. Fuller exemplifications have also been made of the more 
subtle constructions in nouns, pronouns, and infinite verbs. 

An enumeration of all the possible constructions of nouns and 
pronouns is furnished for review study; ^lso of finite and infi- 
nite verbs. 

Teachers will use the preliminary drills given for intro- 
ducing each part of speech and each modification, either as sug- 
gestive of oral instruction from themselves, or they will read 
them responsively with their pupils in preparing them to write 
out each successive lesson in analytic parsing at their desks. 

These written parsing exercises are found to be the most in- 
fallible means of exciting a controlling interest in principles and 
forms of our language. They are immeasurably more effective 
than any of the long, tedious, almost senseless processes dubbed 
language lessons, But language lessons must have their day, 
with "object lessons," with "free-hand drawing," with "natural 
order" and with various other waves of spasmodic efforts ac- 
cepted by "leading educators," all of which have been or will 
be consigned to oblivion, with the scholastics of the Dark Ages. 

The index is much improved in its accuracy and fullness. 

National Normal University, 

Lebanon, Ohio, 
August 15, 1889. 




LANGUAGE. 

HISTORY. 



PAGE 
9 



Origin of Spoken Language 
Origin of Written Language 
Diversity of Languages 
Time of Highest Develop 

ment 
Chief Difference between An 

cient and Modern Lan 

guages . . . .11 
Definitions, Explanations, and 

Remarks . . .12, 13, 14 

PART I. 

ORTHOEPY. 

Conspectus . . 15 

Definitions, Explanations, and 
Remarks . . . 15—19 

Methods of Teaching Pronun- 
ciation . . . 19-21 

Physiological Chart of Artic- 
ulate Sounds ... 20 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Definitions, Explanations, and 
Remarks . . . 21-25 

Advanced Methods of Teach- 
ing .... 26-29 



PARTS OF SPEECH. — INTRODUC- 
TORY LESSONS. — NOUNS. 



Number 
Gender 
Person . 

Parsing Lesson 
Pronouns 



PAGE 

• 32 

- 33 

• 34 
35-37 



VERB. 

Case 37 

Subject and Object . 38, 39 
Possessive Case . . 40, 41 

Declension of Personal Pro- 
nouns and Nouns . . 42 
Classes of Nouns ... 43 
Classes of Pronouns . 44-46 

Declension of Relative Pro- 
noun .... 47 

PART II. 

ETYMOLOGY. — THE NOUN. 



Definition 

Classes 

Person . 

Number 

Gender 

Case 

Declension 



(v) 



. 48 
. 48 

• 49 
5o,5i 
51. 52 
52-56 

• 57 



CONTENTS. 



THE PRONOUN. 

PAGE 

Definition .... 57 
Classes. . . . 58-61 

Modifications, Person, Num- 
ber, Gender, Case . 62-66 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF NOUNS AND 
PRONOUNS. 

Nominative Constructions . 67 
Possessive Constructions 67, 68 
Objective Constructions 68-70 

Examples for Drill in Parsing 
Nouns and Pronouns. 71-80 

THE ADJECTIVE. — INTRODUCTORY 
LESSONS. 

Preliminary Drill. . 80-82 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Pronominal . . ' . 83, 84 

Interrogative Pronominals . 85 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

Definition .... 86 
Classes . . . . 87, 88 
Number SS, 89 

Comparison . . . 89-91 

THE ARTICLE. 

Definition .... 92 
Classes. . . . 92, 93 
Constructions 93 

Recitation of W 

ing . 
Tense . 
Perfect Tenses 



itten Pars- 

93-95 

95-98 

98-100 



MODE. 



Potential 
Imperative . 
Subjunctive . 



Transivity . 
Voice . 

Infinitive Mode 
Participial Mode 
Recitation . 
Classes of Verbs 



PAGE 

103, 104 
104-106 
. 106 
. 107 
108, 109 
110, III, 112 



100-102 
. 102 
. 102 



THE VERB 

Definition 

Classes . 

Style . 

Voice . 

Mode . 

Indicative Mode 

Potential Mode 

Subjunctive Mode 

Imperative Mode 

Infinitive Modes 

Principal Parts 

Conjugation. 

Inflection, . 

Synopsis 

Conjugation of the Verb 

"Be" . . . 132-134 
Conjugation of " Love" 135-145 
List of Irregular Verbs 145-148 



. "3 
113-115 

115, 116 

116, 117 
117-119 

. 119 
. 120 
. 121 
. 122 
123-129 
. 130 

• 131 

• 131 

• 131 



THE ADVERB. 

Definition .... 
Classes. . . . 149, 
Modifications, Comparison . 

THE PREPOSITION. 

Definition . 

Classes 

List of Prepositions 

Peculiarities 



148 
150 
151 

152 
152 
153 
153 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

Definition .... 154 
Classes . . . 154, 155 

List of Conjunctions . . 155 



CONTENTS. 



vn 



THE INTERJECTION. 

Definition . 

List of Interjections 



PAGE 

156 

156 



DRILL IN VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIONS. 



Apposition . 
Predicate Nominative 
Subject of Infinitive 
Predicate Objective 
Double Relative . 
Nominative Absolute, 

PART III. 



157, 158 
156-160 
160-162 
162, 163 
163-165 
165, 166 



SYNTAX. — RULES OF SYNTAX. 



Rule I 

Rule II 

Rule III 

Rule IV 

Rule V 

Rule VI 

Rule VII 

Rule VIII 

Rule IX 

RuleX 

Rule XI 

Rule XII 

Rule XIII 

Rule XIV 

Rule XV 

Rule XVI 

Rule XVII 

Rule XVIII 

Rule XIX 

Rule XX 

Rule XXI 

Rule XXII 

Rule XXIII 

Rule XXIV 

Rules of Limitation 



167-172 

173-175 

175-177 

177, 178 

178-180 

. 181 

. 181 

. 182 

182-184 

. 184 

184, 185 

. 185 

186, 187 

187, 188 

188, 189 

189, 190 
190-192 

192, 193 

193. 194 
195-198 

. 198 

198, 199 

199, 200 
. 200 
. 201 



PAGE 

Rules of Connection . . 201 
Rules of Agreement . 201, 202 
Rules of Government . 202, 203 
Rules of Independent Con- 
struction .... 203 



PART IV. 






PROSODY. 






Definition . 


. 


204 


Figures 




204 


Figures of Orthography 




204 


Figures of Etymology . 


. 


205 


Figures of Syntax 


205 


-207 


Figures of Rhetoric . 


207- 


-211 


Punctuation . 




211 


Rhetorical Punctuation 


211 


-213 


Etymological " 


213, 


214 


Punctuation for Reference 




214 


Punctuation for Printer 


214, 


215 


PART FIVE. 






ANALYSIS. 







As to Structure . . 216, 217 
As to the Nature of the Prop- 
osition . . . 217-219 
As to Structure . . .219 
As to Relation . . . 220 
As to the Base . . 220, 221 
Diagrammed Analysis . 221-227 
Programme for Verbal Analy- 
sis 227 

Verbal Analysis Exemplified 

228-236 
Abridgment . . . 237-239 
Examples for Parsing and 

Analysis . . . 240-247 
Programmes and Models for 
Parsing . . . 248-266 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LANGUAGE— HISTORY. 



ORIGIN OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE. 

1. Language is a divine gift. Spoken Language was 
used undoubtedly by our first parents. Adam gave names 
to all cattle, and to fowls of the air, and to every beast of 
the field, before there was a helpmeet for him; so says the 
Bible. He is also represented as talking directly with that 
Being from whom he derived the faculty of speech, and 
who trained him in its use. 

Let teachers remember who was the first of their pro- 
fession; and not only so, but that no profession has been 
more highly honored. 

ORIGIN OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE. 

2. The first account we have of Written Language, is 
the writing of the decalogue on the tablets of stone. It 
is remarked that all the Hebrew characters, except one or 
two unimportant points, which have since been added to 
the language, are found in the Ten Commandments. 

Before Written Language, pictures, monuments, and 
medals were used to communicate events, and to some 
slight extent to communicate ideas between those of the 

(9) 



io ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

same age. These forms, however, represented things, and 
not sounds used in words. The Romanic letters, which we 
use, are evidently derived from the Greek letters; while 
the Greek letters, according to their historians, were brought 
by Cadmus from Phenicia, B. C. 1493. The Phenician al- 
phabet is similar, in some respects, to the Hebrew, as is 
also the Greek. 

Mr. Pitman, in forming his Phonographic Alphabet, seems 
to have imitated the Hebrew more nearly than any other, 
especially in his vowel system. Thus we have in the latest 
and most improved form of Written Language, a restora- 
tion of the original characters to some extent, as taught to 
Moses on Mount Sinai. 

DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES. 

3, Profane History assigns no reason for the multiplicity 
of languages. Sacred History gives us an account of the 
"confusion of tongues," at the Tower of Babel, and the 
consequent dispersion of mankind. This may account for 
the existing number and variety of languages; or, if, as 
many commentators suppose, the "confusion of tongues" 
refers to a disagreement of the builders in their plans, and 
the consequent irreconcilable quarrels which drove these 
early inhabitants into diverse parts of the earth, then the 
changes which take place in the pronunciation and signifi- 
cation of many words in a few years in modern society, 
even though language is fixed by written characters, and 
by the diversity of pronunciation in different localities in 
the same country, where there is much and frequent inter- 
course, will show that, when tribes have wandered far from 
each other, with no written language, with no intercourse, 
their language, though originally the same, will, in a few 
generations become so changed as to become entirely un- 
intelligible to others than the tribe or tribes in more imme- 



LANGUAGE. 1 1 

diate proximity. The great diversity of languages ceases 
to be a wonder, then, even though men were originally of 
one blood, used one language, and no miracle interposed 
to confound their language. 

TIME OF HIGHEST DEVELOPMENT. 

4. Both Greece and Rome, at the time of their highest 
political power, enjoyed the greatest refinement in the 
arts and sciences. Language is no exception to the rule. 
Gradual improvement may be traced in the style of their 
authors from the earliest historical dawn of those nations 
to the period of their highest glory, respectively. This 
improvement may be noticed in all the qualities which 
constitute excellence of language; some of which are pre- 
cision, euphony, flexibility, and susceptibility of nice shades 
of difference in expressing thought or feeling. 

At the present time, the several spoken languages have 
attained a higher degree of polish and power than at any 
previous period. Among these modern languages, the Ger- 
man is highly cultivated for the expression of thought, and 
the Italian for the exhibition of the emotions; while the 
English yields to no other in its strength, flexibility, and 
delicacy of expression for both thought and feeling. 

CHIEF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANCIENT AND MODERN 
LANGUAGES. 

5. This lies mainly in the mechanical structure of their 
verbs and nouns, the nouns of the ancient languages having 
more methods of declension, and each declension more 
terminations than any of the modern nouns. This variety 
of termination gives equal precision, with much greater 
latitude of arrangement. The cases of modern nouns are 
determined to some extent by their position with relation 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

to the verb. The cases of ancient nouns depend entirely 
on their termination, and not in the least on their position 
in the sentence. Hence the ancient languages give a bet- 
ter opportunity for securing harmony in the arrangement 
than the modern. 

The verbs of the ancient languages are much more com- 
plete in their terminations, and, of course, make use of fewer 
auxiliary verbs. None are necessary save that denoting 
being, which is used only in the passive voice. 

DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

6. Language.— Any method of communicating thought 
or feeling. 

7. Natural Language. — Instinctive methods of communi- 
cating thought or feeling. 

Remark. — Brute animals possess their own instinctive forms of 
language, many of which forms are understood by other species than 
those which use them. 

8. Artificial Language. — That which must be learned be- 
fore it can be used. 

9. Vocal Language. — That produced by the organs of 
speech. 

10. Written Language. — Any method of communicating 
thought by visible characters depicted on a surface. 

11. Symbolic Language. — That form of written language 
in which the characters are designed to represent ideas and 
not sounds. 

12. Phonic Language. — That form of written language in 
which the characters are designed to represent sounds. 

13. Pictorial Language. — That form of symbolic language 
in which the ideas are plainly represented. 



LANGUAGE. 13 

14. Hieroglyphic Language. — That form of symbolic lan- 
guage in which the ideas are so obscurely represented as 
to need an interpreter. 

15. Syllabic Language. — That form of phonic language in 
which the characters represent syllables. 

16. Alphabetic Language. — That form of phonic language 
in which the characters represent separate articulate sounds. 

17. Equivocal Alphabetical Language. — Those in which a 
letter represents more than any one sound, and in which 
a sound is represented by more than one letter. 

18. Unequivocal Alphabetical Languages. — Those in which 
the number of letters equals the number of separate artic- 
ulate sounds — giving but one sound to each letter, and but 
one letter for each sound. 

19. Gesticulate Language. — Any method of communicating 
or impressing thought or feeling, by motions, postures, or 
appearances of the animal form, not producing or represent- 
ing articulated sounds or written characters. 

GRAMMAR. 

20. General, or Universal, Grammar. — That form of gram- 
mar which treats of all those principles and usages which 
are common to all languages. 

21. Particular Grammar. — That form of grammar which 
treats of all those principles, usages, characters, and sounds, 
comprised in any particular language. 

22. English Grammar. — That branch which treats of the 
English language. 

23. Orthoepy. — That division of grammar which treats of 
articulate sounds, and of their correct use in pronunciation. 

24. Orthography. — That division of grammar which treats 
of letters, words, and spelling. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

25. Etymology, — That division of grammar which treats of 
the derivation and formation of words, and the classification 
of words according to their uses. 

26. Lexicography. — That division of grammar which treats 
of the signification of words. 

27. Syntax. — That division of grammar which treats of 
the arrangement of words in sentences. 

28. Analysis. — That division of grammar which treats of 
the separation of sentences into their elements. 

29. Prosody. — That division of grammar which treats of 
versification and punctuation. 



PART ONE. 

ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 
ORTHOEPY. 

CONSPECTUS. 



( Nature, 



Sound, -J Limit of Vibration, 
[ Rate of Progress. 

f Articulatory, 
Organs. \ Vocal, 

[ Respiratory. 

Articulate sounds, j ^ ^ hart 

i Articulation, 
f Common, 
Accent. J discriminative, 
ist I Em P hatlc > 

Rules. | ^ I Poetic. 

fl. Drill in articulate sounds. 
2. Drill in notation of Dictionaries. 
3. Spell words Phonically. 
4. Parse words Orthographically. 



DEFINITIONS, EXPLANATIONS, AND REMARKS. 

30. Orthoepy. — That division of grammar which treats 
of articulate sounds, and their correct use in pronunciation. 

31. Sound. — A sensation produced on the auditory nerve 
by the rapid vibratory motion of air or other elastic sub- 
stance. 

Remark i. — The vibration that produces the sound is often called 
sound; as, we say " sound travels," etc. 

Remark 2. — Limit of Vibrations.— -The fewest number of vibrations 
in a second that can yield a sound to the human ear, is 32. The 
highest number is 30,000, though other animals may perceive vibra- 
tions more or less rapid than these limits. 

(15) 



1 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 3. — Rate of Progress. — Sound travels through air at the 
rate of seven hundred and sixty-three miles per hour, or eleven hun- 
dred and twenty feet per second; through liquids and solids at a rate 
many times greater. 

32. Organs of Speech. — All those distinct parts of the 
human system which are necessarily used in producing the 
sounds of language. 

33. Articulatory Organs. — Those organs of speech which 
are used in modifying or obstructing sound as produced 
by the other organs. They are labia (lips), dentes (teeth), 
palatum (hard palate), uvula (soft palate), nasal fossae (cav- 
ities of the nose), larynx, with its cartilages and muscles. 

34. Vocal Organs. — Chordae Vocales (vocal chords). These 
are two pairs of membranes, extending backwards and for- 
wards, opposite to each other, through the larynx. They 
are attached by their two ends and by one side to the walls 
of the larynx, leaving an open space between them, through 
which air is drawn in and forced out by the respiratory 
organs. 

35. Respiratory Organs. — Those organs of speech used in 
forcing air through the other organs. They are trachea 
(windpipe), bronchi (bronchial tubes), pulmo (lungs), dia- 
phragm, and the intercostal, dorsal, and abdominal muscles. 

36. Voice, or Vocal Sound. — That sound produced 
by the vibration of the vocal chords. 

Remark. — The vibration of these chords during the emission of 
vocal sound, may be perceived by placing the fingers on the larynx, 
externally, at the projection of " Adam's apple." The vibration can 
be detected at no other time. 

37. Articulate Sound. — That made by the organs of speech, 
and used in language. 

38. Voiced Sound, or Voice.— A sound made by the vibra- 
tion of the vocal chords. 

39. Vocal Sound, or Vocal. — A voiced sound, modified but 
not obstructed by the articulatory organs. 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

40. Simple Vocal. — A vocal, made without a change in 
the position of the articulatory organs during its emission. 

41. Compound Vocal. — A vocal made by a change in the 
position of the articulatory organs, from that required by 
one simple vocal to that required by another during its 
emission. 

Remark. — This change commences with the emission of the sound, 
and continues until the close; hence the elements of the compounds 
are not heard in their purity. 

42. Coalescent. — An articulate sound that always precedes, 
and unites with, a vocal. 

43. Subvocal Sound, or Subvocal. — A voiced sound mod- 
ified and obstructed by the articulatory organs. 

44. Aspirated Sound, or Aspirate. — An articulate sound 
made without the vibration of the vocal chords. 

45. Pure Aspirate. — An aspirate modified but not ob- 
structed by the articulatory organs. 

46. Obstructed Aspirate. — An aspirate modified and ob- 
structed by the articulatory organs. 

47. Labial. — An articulate sound modified or obstructed 
at the lips. 

Remark. — The vocals and pure aspirates are modified only, while 
the subvocals and the other aspirates >are obstructed also. 

48. Dental. — An articulate sound modified or obstructed 
at the teeth or gums. 

49. Palatal. — An articulate sound modified or obstructed 
at the hard palate. 

50. Guttural. — An articulate sound modified or obstructed 
at the soft palate. 

Remark I. — Sounds are obstructed at the lips by the lips only, or 
by the teeth and lips. 

Remark 2. — Sounds are obstructed at the teeth, gums, or hard 

palate, by the tip of the tongue; and at the soft palate by the root 

of the tongue. 

H. Gram. — 2. 



1 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

51. Abrupt {also called Explodent and Mute). — An artic- 
ulate sound made by such a perfect contact of the organs as 
entirely prevents the escape of air externally. 

52. Continuant. — An articulate sound, made by such par- 
tial contact of the organs as to admit of escape of air ex- 
ternally. 

53. Liquid. — A continuant susceptible of simultaneous 
combination with other obstructed sounds. The liquids are 
/ and r. 

54. Nasal. — A continuant made by the escape of air 
through the cavities of the nose only. 

55. Cognate Sounds. — Those sounds made by the artic- 
ulatory organs in the same positions, and differing only in 
the vibrations of the vocal chords. 

56. Pronunciation. — The enunciation of the sounds of 
a word with correct articulation and accent. 

57. Articulation {joining). — The distinct enunciation of the 
sounds in words. 

58. Accent. — The greater stress given to one syllable of a 
word than to others; also, the greater force given to long 
syllables in poetry. 

59. Common Accent. — That given in the ordinary pronun- 
ciation of a word without reference to any other word. 

60. JDiscri?ninative Accent. — That given to words of the 
same articulation to distinguish different parts of speech. 

Examples. — I. Nouns from Verbs. — Accent, accent 7 ; con'cert, 
concert 7 ; insult, insult 7 , etc. 

2. Adjectives from Verbs. — At/sent, absent 7 ; com 7 pound, compound 7 ; 
fre 7 quent, frequent 7 , etc. 

61. Emphatic Accent. — That in which the stress is trans- 
ferred from the ordinary syllable to another, for the purpose 
of giving antithetic emphasis more distinctly. 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 19 

62. Poetic Accent. — That which is placed on long syllables 
of a poetic foot, even though those syllables should be 
monosyllabic words. 

METHODS OF TEACHING PRONUNCIATION. 

63. Drill in Articulate Sound. — Commence with vo- 
cals as given in Chart, page 20. 

1. Repeat each long sound twice in order. 

2. Direct the class to do the same in concert with yourself. 

3. Direct the class to do the same without your aid. Con- 
tinue this process until the large majority make the sounds 
correctly, and in the order of the chart. 

4. Drill individuals failing, before the class, in groups or 
singly, till each pupil masters all the difficulties. 

5. Pursue the same course with the short vocals. 

6. Repeat and vary these drills until every pupil can go 
through the vocals, long and short, and name the organ at 
which the sound is modified. 

7. Pursue a similar course with the obstructed sounds, 
beginning with the aspirates, and following with the sub- 
vocals on Chart, page 20. 

64. Spelling words Phonically. — 1. This should be 
practiced more or less in connection with every exercise in 
concert, the teacher accompanying; next, the class in con- 
cert without his aid; lastly, individual pupils, always giving 
opportunity for the members of the class to criticise the 
spelling of the individuals, they first raising their hands for 
permission to do so. 

2. Let the teacher select such phonic characters in order 
from the chart on page 20 as shall form words. The class 
will pronounce each sound as its representative is touched 
with the pointer, until the elements of a word are thus 
separately pronounced; then, a signal given, they are ex- 
pected to pronounce the word together. This exercise 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PHYSIOLOGICAL CHART OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 

A Physiological Classification of the Articulate Sounds of the English 
Language, with the Webster ian and Worcester ian Notation. 











<A 


a 


ft) 




Oh 


3 . 








3 


O 
C/3 


O 



"rtTj 


<cu 


>rt >rt 


*3- 








>3 >3 


J5^ 


ICJ 


>0J >U 


ffi 


Md 





Oj£ 






J 3 



*> 



PL, bjobfl 



rt *-' — < C C ^ 



h-1 



6S 






.5 *< 

.J-J 



20 



a o u , 

rtP* 



J2 w u ^ -i 



6 






— > t/3 <s> y c/3 o < 



££££££££££££ 



,Oi*j3i-.,aiH,£>s* 
0>O<UO<UO«O 

££££££££ 



4-> <U 
t/5 o 


-a " v •>-> <u 
o W CJ «« o 


^ k« 


Ih.O U-Q J-. 


<u o 


(L 4) O D O 


££ 


££££ 



£ £ fc £ a fc 



.2 -•-•* 



j a 




-" '3 rt rt ci 
.£f o rt o 



£ £ 



w o 

^ C 3 



a % a 

OC-- 

o rt — 







T3 

C 
3 
O 

£ 
o 
U 


g § 

O 3 

S.S 

o o 


X Ul-a u 5> hn 


ft 
g 
35 




r Byaperf 
of the or 
ducing A 

By a pa 
tact of th 
producing 
s uants. 


'syeoof^ JO 
'paoio^V paisnjisqouft 


s[BDOAqng jo 
'pDOio^Y p3?onj;sqQ 



•paoio^Y 



£S 




>V. 3 >v. 3 
PQ ottPh o-o 

•psionj^sqo 



•pajsdsiq^ 



•saNaos axviaorxHY 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 21 

should begin with monosyllables, and from these proceed to 
the most complicated and difficult words. 

65. Criticism on Pronunciation. — In recitation of all 
studies, opportunity should be given the classes for mutual 
criticism on pronunciation, as well as in other particulars. 

This matter of criticism is managed thus : 

The teacher asks, "Are there any errors in pronuncia- 
tion?" 

Pupils who have noticed errors, raise their hands. 

The teacher calls upon such a pupil as is least in the 
habit of criticism, to mention the error. 

The pupil does it in this form: "Mr. A. B. pronounced 
' heard' 'heerd.' He should have given the close sound 
of e rather than the long." The pupil continues: "He 
pronounced ' re/tftf/z'strate' 'rm'onstrate,' accenting the first 
syllable instead of the second." 

In case of doubt in the mind of any one, either pupil 
or teacher, a pupil is requested to examine the authorities, 
Webster's or Worcester's dictionary, which should always be 
on the teacher's table and in the pupil's desk. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



66. Orthography. — That division of grammar which 
treats of letters, syllables, words, and spelling. 

67. Letter. — A visible character representing by itself, 
or with one or more besides, an articulate sound; also used 
to determine signification. 

68. Typical Forms. — These are given in the names that 
distinguish them in the classification. There are many or- 
namental forms in use not given. 

69. Rhetorical Forms, — These are used for emphasis or 
other rhetorical distinction. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

70. Power of a Letter. — The sound which a letter repre- 
sents in a word; also the influence which one letter exerts 
upon the representative character of another. 

71. Vowel. — A letter used to represent a vocal sound; the 
basis of a syllable. 

72. Consonant. — A letter used to represent a subvocal or 
aspirate sound, modifying the basis of a syllable. 

73. Aphthong, or Silent Letter. — A letter which represents 
no sound, but is used either to modify the representative 
character of another, or merely to determine signification. 

Remark. — An aphthong may be a vowel or a consonant aphthong, 
according to the more common use of the letter. 

Explanation. — E, in the word lade, changes the sound of a from 
short to long; also g, in sign, changes the sound of i short to long; 
also w, in write, determines the signification of the word, and distin- 
guishes it from that of rite ; also b, in dumb, determines signification, 
since du?n has no signification. 

74. Diphthongs. — One or two vowels, representing a 
combination of two vocal sounds. 

Explanation. — The diphthong i represents a combination of Italian 
a and long e. 

The diphthong long u represents a combination of long e and close 0. 
The diphthong oi represents a combination of broad a and short i. 
The diphthong ou represents a combination of Italian a and close 0. 
These are all the proper diphthongs in the English language. 

75. Digraphs. — A Vowel Digraph, or improper diph- 
thong, is a combination of two vowels, in which only one 
receives a sound, the other being a modifier. 

76. A Conjoined Vowel Digraph is one in which the two 
vowels are not separated by a consonant. 

77. A Disjoined Vowel Digraph is one in wnich the two 
vowels are separated by one or more consonants. 

78. A Consonant Digraph is a combination of two conso- 
nants, one or both of which are required to represent a 
sound. 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 23 

Remark. — A consonant not required to represent a sound of the 
word is an aphthong, whether modifying the representative character 
of a letter or not. Thus, in the consonant digraph gn, in the word 
condign, tjie g modifies the sound of i, but it is not necessary for 
the representation of the final sound, and hence is an aphthong. 

79. A Combined Digraph is a combination of a consonant 
and a vowel to represent a subvocal or an aspirate sound. 

Explanation. — The consonant / and the vowel i are used in the 
terminal syllable Hon, to represent the aspirate sound of sh or ch. 
Cz\ ce, and si % are used in a similar manner. 

80. Trigraphs. — Vowel Trigraph. — A combination of 
three vowels representing one or two sounds. 

Remark. — Eau in beau represents one sound; in beauty, it repre- 
sents two combined. 

81. Disjoined Trigraph. — One in which a consonant oc- 
curs between two of the vowels. 

82. Syllables. — One or more sounds uttered at one im- 
pulse of the breath; also the letters representing any sound 
or sounds so uttered. 

83. Ultimate Syllable. — The last syllable in a word. 

84. Penultimate Syllable, or Penult. — The last syllable but 
one in a word. 

85. Antepenultimate Syllable. — The last syllable but two in 
a word. 

86. Preantepenultimate Syllable. — The last syllable but three 
in a word. 

Remark. — The syllables of a word are also described in their nu- 
merical order, commencing at the left; as, first, second, third, etc. 

87. Base of a Syllable. — The vocal or vowel used in its 
formation. 

88. Modifier. — Any sound preceding or succeeding the 
base of a syllable, or letter or digraph representing such 
sound. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

89. Antecedent. — Any sound preceding the base of a syl- 
lable or letter or digraph representing such sound. 

90. Consequent. — Any sound succeeding the base of a 
syllable, or letter or digraph representing such sound. 

Remark. — A letter representing a sound, preceding another, is 
parsed as an antecedent, though the order of the letter should differ 
from that of the sounds represented by them. 

91. Word. — The received sign of an idea, expressed in 
one or more articulate sounds, or in visible characters rep- 
resenting such sounds. 

92. Simple Word. — One which can not be divided into 
separate words without radically altering the signification. 

93. Compound Word. — One which can be divided into 
separate words without radically altering their signification. 

94. Primitive Word. — -One which can not be reduced to 
simpler form without radically altering its signification. 

95. Derivative Word. — One which can be reduced to a 
simpler form without radically altering its signification. 

Remark. — A compound word is considered primitive if all its parts 
are primitive, otherwise a derivative. A derivative is considered 
simple unless it plainly comes under the definition of a compound. 

96. The Base of a Compound Word is that word represent- 
ing the fundamental idea. 

97. The Modifier in a Co?npound Word is that word which 
describes the other. 

98. The Base of a Derivative Word is the primitive word 
from which it is derived. 

99. The Modifiers in a Derivative Word are the prefixes or 
suffixes, or both. Both are called affixes. 

100. Prefix. — One or more syllables not used as a word 
of similar meaning in the English language, but placed be- 
fore words to modify their signification. 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 

1 01. Suffix. — One or more syllables, not used as a word 
of similar meaning in the English language, but placed after 
words to modify their signification. 

102. Monosyllable. — A word of one syllable. 

103. Dissyllable. — A word of two syllables. 

104. Trisyllable. — A word of three syllables. 

105. Polysyllable. — A word of more than three syllables. 

106. Accented Syllable. — One that is pronounced with more 
force than others in the same word. 

Remark I. — Accent may be primary when it is greater than that 
received by any other syllable in the same word; or secondary when 
it is less than that received by some other syllable in the same word. 

Remark 2. — In Prosody, an accented syllable is long in quantity, 
an unaccented syllable short in quantity, i. e., of time taken to pro- 
nounce it. 

107. Spelling. — A distinct expression of the letters or 
sounds of a word in their proper order. 

108. Orthographic Spelling. — The expression of the letters 
of which a written word is composed, and in their proper 
order, according to the received authority. 

109. Phonic Spelling. — The separate expression of the ele- 
mentary sounds of which a word is composed, and in their 
proper order, according to established usage. 

no. General Rules for Spelling. — Rule 1. Write no 
word unless sure of its orthography and signification. 
Pule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. 
Pule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 

Remark. — The special rules for spelling are to be found on page 
28, and need special attention. All grades, except primary, should be 
thoroughly drilled in their use. It is not enough to memorize them. 
More than one half the bad spelling found in school exercises, as well 
as in business operations, may be justly charged to ignorance of these 
special rules. 

H. Gram. — 3. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ADVANCED METHODS OF TEACHING. 

111. Teaching Orthography by the Chart. — The methods of 
using the chart are explained in sections 63 to 65. 

This chart can be copied in an enlarged form by the teacher or by 
pupils, on one or more large sheets of printing-paper, with a crayon. 
Charts of orthography are sold frequently for two dollars. Such a 
chart would cost the teacher not over a half- dime, including paper 
and crayon, and will serve as good a purpose as the most expensive. 
If pupils are permitted to make such a chart, they have the advan- 
tage of learning by the process, and of cultivating their taste in draw- 
ing and writing. 

112. Teaching Orthography by Derivatives. — It is an excellent 
practice to give spelling lessons in the derivatives. Let the teacher 
propose two or three roots for a lesson ; as, press, act, etc. The pu- 
pils, at the recitation, are required to write as many derivatives as 
they have been able to obtain, either on their slates or on the black- 
board. They should, of course, be provided with dictionaries in the 
preparation of such a lesson. They can also make use of tables of 
prefixes and suffixes. They will also bring into use the special rules 
for spelling derivatives. 

The definitions of the derivatives should be required as a part of 
the exercise. The exercise can be made very profitable with the use 
of the dictionary, prefixes and suffixes being defined. 

113. Examples in formation of derivatives, with the special rules 
for spelling, are given on page 28. 

WITH SUFFIXES. 

Act. — A primitive word, signifying to do or to make. 

Actor. — The person who acts. 

Actress. — The female who acts. 

Action. — The result or process of acting. 

Acts. — Does act. 

Actest. — Dost act. 

Acteth. — Does act. 

Acted. — Did act. 

Acting. — Continuing to act. 

Actionable. — Admitting of an action. 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 27 

Actionably. — By admitting an action. 

c lonary. 1 — ^ person who has a share in an action. 
Actionist. J 

Active. — Inclined to act. 

Activity. -I Rule 4. 1 _ The state or quality of being active# 
Activeness. J Rule 3. J 
Actively. — Rule 3. — In an active manner. 
Actual. — Real in acting or being. 

y* \ — The state of being actual. 
Actualness. ) 

Actually. — In an actual manner. 

Actuate. — To cause to act. 

WITH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

Coact. — To act together with force. 

Coaction. — The process of coacting. 

Coactive. — Inclining to coact. 

Counteract. — To act against. 

Counteraction. — The process of acting against. 

Enact. — To act in making a law. 

Enactment. — The process or result of enacting. 

Inactive. — Without action. 

Inaction. — An inactive state. 

Inactively. — Rule 3. — In an inactive manner. 

Inactivity. — Rule 4. — An inactive state. 

Exact. — Verb. — To act in forcing out of. 

Exacting. — Continuing to exact. 

Exaction. — The process or result of exacting. 

Exactor. — The person who exacts. 

Exact. — Adjective. — Acting from rule; accurate. 

Exactly. — In an exact manner. 

Exactness. ") r™ c , . 

v — The state of being exact. 
Exactitude. ) 

React. — To act again; to act back. 

Reacting. — Continuing to react. 

Reaction. — The process of reacting. 

Reactive. — Inclining to react. 

Reactively. — Rule 4. — In a reactive manner. 

Sub-action. — The process of acting to place under. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II4« Pel. — An inseparable radical word, signifying to drive ox force. 
From Pel/o, Pulsus. 

Pulsion. — The act of driving. 

With prefixes and suffixes — 

Compel, Compelled — Rule 1 ; Compelling — Rule I ; Compulsion, Com- 
pulsive, Compulsively — Rule 4; Compulsiveness — Rule 4; Compulsory. 

115. From the root Press nearly two hundred derivatives can be 
obtained. From the inseparable root Gress a long list can be formed. 

These two examples, Act and Pel, will be sufficient to illustrate the 
method of spelling by the use of prefixes and suffixes in forming de- 
rivatives from separable and inseparable primitives. 

116. Rules for Spelling. — 1. Words which end with a single 
consonant, preceded by a single vowel, and which are accented on 
the last syllable, double the final letter on taking an additional syl- 
lable beginning with a vowel. 

Remark. — X and h are never doubled. 

2. Words which end with a consonant, preceded by a diphthong, 
or a digraph representing a vowel sound, and words which are not 
accented on the last syllable, do not double the final letter on taking 
an additional syllable. 

3. Words which end with e, generally retain it on taking an addi- 
tional syllable beginning with a consonant. 

Exceptions. — -Judgment, lodgment, abridgment, acknowledgment. 

Remark. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes re- 
tained and sometimes dropped; as, true, truly; rue, rueful; shoe, shoe- 
less, etc. 

4. Words which end with e generally omit it on taking an addi- 
tional syllable beginning with a vowel. 

Exceptions. — Words ending with ce or ge retain e before the ter- 
minations able and ous, to preserve the soft sound of c and g; as, 
peace, peaceable, courage, courageous, etc. Dyeing retains the e to dis- 
tinguish it from dying. 

5. Words which end with ie drop the e and change i into y on 
taking the syllable ing. 

6. Words which end with y, preceded by a consonant, change y 
into i on taking an additional syllable. 

Exceptions. — Before ing, y is retained; as, pity, pitying. 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 29 

7. The digraph ei follows c soft; ie is found after the other conso- 
nants. Ei begins words; ie is found at the end of words. 

117. Drilling on the Special Rules for Spelling. — 1. The class 
should be required to memorize these as they are given on page 28, 
with the exceptions and remarks. They should so memorize them 
that they can give them as they are called for by the teacher promis- 
cuously. They should then be required to write, or to spell orally, 
words as they are dictated, or pronounced, from examples selected by 
the teacher, under each rule in order, until every pupil shows that 
he is able to apply the rules correctly. 

2. Sentences may then be dictated for writing, containing deriv- 
ative words coming under the rules promiscuously. 

3. Sentences may be written on the board by the teacher in which 
these rules are violated. The pupils are expected to rewrite the sen- 
tences on slates or paper, with reference, by number, to the rules 
which were violated. 

4. This course should be pursued day after day for weeks, until the 
pupils have formed the habit of noticing the application of these rules 
in spelling. 

5. We find that the larger part of misspelling in the compositions 
of advanced pupils is in violation of these rules, until they have been 
thoroughly drilled in them. 

118. Use of Capital Letters. — Capital letters are used: 

1. To begin the first word of a sentence. 

2. To begin all proper names. 

3. To begin all titles of honor. 

4. To begin the first word of every line of poetry. 

5. To begin the names of objects personified. 

6. In writing the pronoun I and interjection O. 

7. To begin appellations of the Deity. 

8. To begin the names of the days of the week, and of the months. 

9. To begin direct quotations. 

10. To begin words derived from proper names. 

11. To begin the chief words in the titles of books, headings of 
divisions of books, chapters, discourses, etc. 

12. To begin words of special importance. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS— NOUNS. 

119. Names of Material Objects. — 1. The boys study 
grammar. 

2. The ship sails on the ocean. 

3. The birds sit on the tree. 

Teacher. " Pupils, we have here three sentences. As many as can 
give me the names in the first sentence, 'The boys study grammar,' 
may raise their hands." 

All hands are up. 

Teacher. "James, you may give them." 

James. "Boys and grammar." 

Teacher. " Right. These names are nouns. All names are nouns. 
What nouns in the next sentence, ' The ship sails on the ocean ' ? " 

Some hands come up. 

Teacher. "Mary, you may give them." 

Mary. "Ship and ocean." 

Teacher. "Class, you may think of other nouns or names, and give 
them as I call on you. Susan." 

Susan. " Horse, dog, cat." 

Teacher. " These words are nouns, but the things they are the 
names of, are not nouns : they are animals. James, why is the word 
dog a noun? " 
-James. "Because it is a name." 

Teacher. " Hattie, what is the dog itself?" 

Hattie. "An animal or a thing." 

120. Names of Immaterial Objects. — Teacher. "Thus 

far, Class, we have had the names of only those things we can see. 
In the following sentences we have names of things we can not see." 

i. Our life is very uncertain. 

2. Your minds are improving. 

3. Health is a great blessing. 

(30) 



NOUNS. 31 

TeacJier. "In the first sentence, * Our life is very uncertain,' what 
is the noun? Henry." 

Henry. "Life." 

Teacher. " But you never saw nor heard a life." 

Henry. "No; but I have life; I am not dead." 

Teacher. "Very good. In the second sentence, 'Your minds are 
improving,' Samuel, what is ??iinds?" 

Samuel. "I don't know, sir." 

Teacher. " Well, Samuel, you believe you have a mind as well as 
body and clothes? Since you have a mind, we must have a name 
for it, and all names are what, Samuel?" 

Samuel. "Nouns." 

Teacher. "And now, Class, all together, what is minds?" 

Class. "A noun." 

Teacher. "You may think of some other such nouns, and give 
them as I call on you. Charles." 

Charles. "Truth and good." 

TeacJier. "Charles, why is truth a noun?" 

Charles. " Because it is the name of something." 

TeacJier. "Very well. But did you ever have a good?" 

Charles. "We had a good teacher last winter." 

TeacJier. "True; but what sort of thing is the good without the 
teacher? Your last teacher had a quality of heart which made her 
good. Can you tell me the name of that quality?" 

Hands are up. 

Teacher. "Jane." 
Jane. "Goodness." 

TeacJier. " Right. Goodness is, then, a noun, because it is the 
name of the quality which your teacher had." 

121. Distinction Of Number. — TeacJier. "Now, Class, 
when I say, 'Boys run,' do I mean one or more than one boy? All 
together." 

Class. "More than one." 

Teacher. "Right. What would I say, if I meant but one?" 

Class. "Boy." 

TeacJier. "When we have a noun which means but one, the gram- 
marians say it is in the singular number; but if it means more than 
one, they say the noun is in the plural number. In the sentences 
which follow, you may point out all the nouns and give their num- 
ber." 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i. The girls in the house. 

2. My book is torn. 

3. We play croquet with mallets and balls. 

* 

Teacher. "You may give, in concert, the plural of house" 

Class. "Houses." 

Teacher. "Plural of book." 

Class. "Books." 

Teacher. "The singular of mallets." 

Class. "Mallet." 

Teacher. "The plural of fan." 

Class. "Fans." 

Teacher. * ' Pan. ' ' 

Class. "Pans." 

Teacher. "Man." 

Class. "Mans Oh, men." 

Teacher. "Try again. Give the plural of youth." 

Class. "Youths." 

TeacJier. "Truth." 

Class. "Truths." 

Teacher. "Tooth." 

Class. "Tooths no, no, teeth; ha, ha!" 

122. Distinction Of Gender.— "Pupils, I wish you now to 
learn something about that property of nouns, called gender. John is 
a noun of the masculine gender or kind, because it is the name of 
a male. All names of males are masculine nouns. Susan is in the 
feminine gender, because the name of a female. Names of females 
are feminine." 

i. Charles is an intelligent boy. 

2. Sarah is a good girl. 

3. My slate is broken and my pencil lost. 

Teacher. "As many as can tell me the gender of the noun 
'Charles,' may raise their hands." 

All hands are up. 

Teacher. " Mary." 

Mary. "Masculine." 

Teacher. "Gender of * Sarah ' in the sentence, 'Sarah is a good 
girl.' All together." 

Class. " Feminine." 



NOUNS. 33 

Teacher, "In same sentence, what is the gender of the noun 
'girl'? Samuel." 

Samuel. " Feminine." 

Teacher. "Why?" 

Samuel. "Because it is the name of a female." 

Teacher. "Class, all together, in what gender is the noun 'boy' 
in the sentence, 'Charles is an intelligent boy'?" 

Class. "Masculine." 

Teac/ier. "Why, James?" 
Javies. " Because the name of a male." 

Teacher. " Pupils, can you give me the gender of the nouns 'slate' 
and * pencil,' in the sentence, ' My slate is broken and my pencil lost ' ? " 

Class. "No, sir." 

Teacher. "Because these nouns have no sex, the grammarians say 
they are of the neuter gender or kind. John, in what gender, then, 
is 'stone'?" 
John. " Neuter." 

Teacher. " Gender of stove? William." 

William. "Neuter." 

Teacher. "All nouns, then, which are names of neither males nor 
females are in what gender? Class, all together." 

Class. "Neuter." 

Teacher. "Nouns which are both masculine and feminine are in 
the common gender; as, parent, child, etc." 

123. Distinction of Person. — Teacher. "Pupils, you seem 
so eager to learn, I will give you one more distinction of nouns, and 
then give you a parsing lesson. Nouns which denote the speaker or 
writer, are in the first person. Those which .represent the person 
spoken to are in the second person. The person or thing spoken of 
is in the third person. For example: 'I, John, saw the balloon.' Here 
'John' is in the first person, because it is the name of the speaker. 
' O Mary ! what have you done ? ' ' Mary ' is in the second person, 
because it is the name of the person spoken to. In the sentence, 
'The horse is a useful animal,' 'horse' and 'animal' are both in the 
third person, because names of things spoken of." 

i. I, William, am sovereign of United Germany. 
2. James, hand me that book. 

Teacher. "Class, all together, in what person is 'William'?" 
Class. "First person." 



;,; ENGLISH okAMMAk. 

Ttachir, u why, Charles?" 

Charla, "Because it li the name "I ih«- person speaking." 
Ttacher, "In the ientence ( f Jamei| hand me thai book/ in what 
p< rion ' ' I"'" ' ■' aii togethi i 
CAw/< "Second person." 

TfachfTi " Why ?" 

f 7r/.w. " |.iin( . is spoken lo." 

Ttachcr. "In vv 1 1 ; 1 1 person is 'hook'?" 

C/a/j, "'i bird." 

/;,/,//,/. - Why, Mr,,, 

/A/// 1'. " BooV i ipoken <>i." 

124. Pint Parsing Lesson. — I. John love:, study. 

2. Mary has he.nitiful Mowers. 
We love the solids ol hinls. 

4. I, the king, < ommand il done. 

5. () M.try! come ;ui<l see my new hook. 

6. ( > 1 »ord, vve will serve thee. 

Teachtr* M Pupils, I will give you .1 programme fot parsing nouns 
in writing • Iii tin. w.iy I will parse ' John ' in the sentence, 'John 

love, || II. I y ' : 

" /<>////, (Species?) noun, (Person?) third, (Number ?) lingular, (Gen 
der?) masculine, The words In parenthesis asl< the questions, 'what 
species? 1 , 'what person?', etc, Since these are in the programme 
before you, you may """' them In yo\x\ own parsing, We will then 
give ii thusi John li a noun, third, singular, mast ulinc. Now, 1 would 
like to have you take your slates, and parse • flowers ' in the sentence, 
• Mary hai beautiful flowers,' Sarah, yon m;iy }m> to tin- board and 

parse ' llowers ' while the test use 1 licit shiti . 



• 1 in teachei wM place <•" the board and explain thli programme! 
Species t l*ersont Number f Gtfldii 
1 in teachei will examine slates and give all commendation possible, as 

1. 11 ar, , ,, n\ r. irni with I10111 sty 

Nut I Reasons loi wiitinj; par.inj; Irv.ons: 

( 1 i 1 1 Impro 1 i" nmanship 
1 • i \ in, .in'. ..1 t. .,, 1, hi- .|„ ning 
< |, ) Prepares the way '«" 1 omposition 

ii ) it lecurei faithful study from ivity membei <>i the class, and thus 
providi !•• mi 1 li , mi.' hief, and deception! 



PRO 35 

many think they can parte the other noun', in the,*; 
? Ai many u can, mi their hand-,." 

All bands up. 

Teacher. " v<:ry well. I *» rr: pleated with your attention this morn- 
ing, and for your next recitation you may parte, in writing, the noum 
n in the sentences above. Vou will ate the Last page of your 
uniting -book, making \\ the firs! page of your Gram 
hook. These noum you will \, ording to the programme I 

i n you, and af the next recitation bring in your hook-,, when 

I thai] be glad to sec how correctly and neatly your work it Hone." 



PRONOUNS. 



125. Recitation. 

126. Preliminary Drill. Teacher* "When Mary came from 
eat, Mary forgot M;uy\ grammar. How many can impi 

All handt are up. 

Teacher, "Charles, I would \\\u ntence 

would tpeak it." 

Charles. " When ."■' <: from her seat, she forgot her ^rarn- 

rn.-jr." 

Teacher* " Vc.ry good. Jamet, what wordt are used inttead of 



Sorn of supplying paper ! 

(1 ill prefer to huy a hkmk-hook especially for this - 

(a.) 'J he teacher may be able to induce me parenttoi every pupil to 

hie hook. 

(■',., '.' < copy book at explained above, tlnce the pupil will make ra 

rienf in penmanship this way than hy only writing aft 
f/j.; The above (ailing, the true teachei wrill provide papet af h 

With a cl;iss of ordinary nihility, tf -her can accomplish 1 

of th in a data drill of thirty minutes, if tin 

nuity or enthusiasm, or if the class be somewhat backward or irregular, or 

'hie grammar c limited, the teacher rn;iy find 

eessary to divid' nd make two or more of it. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

James. " Her, she, and her, again." 

Teacher. " Right. The grammarians call these words pronouns be- 
cause they are used for nouns. In the sentence, * When the sun rose 
it went into a cloud,' what word is used for the noun 'sun'? Mary." 

Mary. " It." 

Teacher. "Right. 'It' is also a pronoun because it stands for 
the noun 'sun.' In the sentence, * When James came to school, his 
sister came with him,' what words are used for 'James'? Sarah." 

Sarah. " ' His ' and ' him.' " 

Teacher. " Mary, see if you can give that sentence, and use 'James ' 
for 'his ' and 'him.' " 

Mary. "When James came to school, James's sister came with 
James." 

Teacher. "Very good. 'His' and 'him,' then, are used instead 
of what, Henry? " 

Henry. "Instead of 'James.'" 

Teacher. "Words used for nouns are called what? Class, all to- 
gether." 

Class. "Pronouns." 

Teacher. "In the sentence, 'When James came to school, his sis- 
ter came with him,' 'his' and 'him' are what?" 

Class. "Pronouns." 

Teacher. "Very good. Now, I will give you a programme for 
. parsing pronouns in writing. 

(Teacher will place on the board, Species? Antecedent? Agreement in 
what Person f Gender ? Number ? Rule ?) 

In the sentence, 'When the sun rose, it went into a cloud,' I will 
parse 'it' according to this programme, thus: // is a pronoun, agrees 
with its antecedent, 'sun,' in third, singular, neuter, Rule 5, page 201, 
' A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and 
gender.' You may now parse the same, in concert, as I point to the 
steps in the programme." 

Class. "It is a pronoun, agrees with its antecedent, 'sun,' in 
third, singular, neuter, Rule 5." 

Teacher. " Very good. I would like to have one of you parse, 
in the same way, 'his,' in the sentence, ' When James came to school, 
his sister came with him.' Who would like to try it?" 

Several hands up. 

Teacher. "Well, Mary, you may parse 'his,' and the class will 
watch closely that Mary makes no mistake." 



VERBS. 37 

Mary. "His is a pronoun, agrees with its antecedent, * James,' 
in the third, singular, masculine, Rule 5." 

Teacher. " Very well. You may all memorize this rule as a part 
of the next lesson. How many think they can now parse pronouns ?" 

All hands up. 

Teacher. "Now, I will ask you to parse, in writing, for your next 
recitation, the words in italics in the sentences below. Some are 
nouns : some are pronouns. Try to parse them according to the pro- 
grammes which I shall leave on the blackboard, as they now stand." 

i. Mary, you have been a good girl. 

2. John bought a new book, but he gave it to his sister. 

3. She can now parse a great many words. 

4. Susan and her sister have come ; we are so glad to see 
them. 

127. Recitation. 

Examination of papers with necessary corrections and full measure of 
approbation, especially of the slower pupils, grading each pupil's work in 
the teacher's class-book, according to merit. 



THE VERB. 



128. Preliminary Drill: Case. — Teacher. "Pupils, you 

have seen that nouns and pronouns have three different modifications — 
person, number, and gender. I will now give you another, more dif- 
ficult to understand ; but before I do so, it will be necessary to show 
you something about the verb. When I say, ■ The boy studies/ what 
word tells what the boy does? All together.'' 

Class. "Studies." 

Teacher. "The word * studies' is called the verb, or principal 
word, because it tells what the boy does. What, then, is the verb 
in this sentence, * The girls read'? All together." 

Class. "Read." 

Teacher. " Why ? " 

Class. "Because it tells what the girls do." 

Teacher. "In the sentence, * James plowed the garden,' which is 
the verb? As many as can tell, may raise the hand." 

Hands up. 



3% ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Teacher. "John." 
John. "Plowed." 

Teacher. " Right. A verb is a word which denotes action, also 
being, or state of being. I will now give you some short sentences, 
and you may find the verbs." 

i. The birds sing in the trees. 

2. The rain falls in large drops. 

3. The stars appear at night. 

4. The dog runs after the rabbit. 

5. John remains, but his sister has gone. 

Teacher. "In the sentence, 'The birds sing in the trees,' James, 
what is the verb f and why?" 

James. "Sing, because it tells what the birds do." 

Teacher. "Yes; and now you may use the definition I just gave 
you. In this sentence, ' sing ' denotes action. If I should say ' The 
birds rest on the ground,' the verb 'rest' does not denote an action, 
but simply a state of being. In the sentence, 'The rain falls in large 
drops,' what is the verb, and why? Mary." 

Mary. " Falls, because it denotes action." 

Teacher. "Very good. You will notice that 'appear,' in the third 
sentence, and ' remains,' in the fourth, are verbs, because they denote 
being or state of being ; and all these words are verbs, because they 
assert something." 

129. Subject and Object. — Teacher. "Pupils, if I should 
say 'The horse ran away,' what is the subject of my remark — what 
is the principal thing talked about? As many as can tell, may raise 
their hands." 

Hands up. 

Teacher. "Samuel." 

Samuel. "Horse." 

Teacher. " Right. The subject of a sentence is that about which 
the verb asserts something. In this sentence, what is it that ran ? 
Why, the horse ran. So 'horse' is the subject of the verb 'ran.' 
Grammarians say this is in the nominative case. I would call it the 
subjective case, but it is better for you to follow the grammars in 
this instance. In the sentence, 'The boys gather apples,' what is 
the subject, and why? All together." 

Class. "Boys, because it is that about which the verb asserts 
something." 



VERBS. 39 

Teacher. "Very good. What is the verb, and why? Henry." 

Henry. " Gather, because it denotes action. " 

Teacher. "Yes. In the expression, * The boy strikes the table,' 
what object does the boy strike? All together." 

Class. "Table." 

Teacher, " Right. In this, * I see the blackboard,' what object 
do I see?" 

Class. "Blackboard." 

Teacher. "Now, I wish you to notice that those things which re- 
ceive actions are objects, and, in grammar, those nouns and pronouns 
which denote things that receive action, are said to be objects; and 
they take different forms or are put in different positions from those 
words which are used as subjects, that we may be able to distinguish 
subjects from objects. For example, 'I saw him.' Here you easily 
recognize 'I' as the subject and 'him' as the object, both by the 
position and the form. If I should say * Me addressed he,' you readily 
see both words are wrong. How should it be? All together." 

Class. "I addressed him." 

Teacher. "In this expression, 'I followed she,' what is wrong? 
How should it be?" 

Class. "I followed her." 

Teacher. "Yes. 'I' is in the subjective or nominative case, or 
form, and 'her' is in the objective case or objective form. Now, 
since pronouns simply stand in place of nouns, you see nouns must 
also have these cases ; though they are distinguished only by position, 
and not by their form. We are now ready to enlarge our programmes 
for parsing nouns and pronouns so as to include case. I will put 
the enlarged programme on the board." 

(Teacher will place on the board the following forms :) 

1. For the noun — Species? Person? Number? Gender? Case? Con- 
struction ? Rule ? ( Person ? 

2. For the pronoun — Species? Antecedent? Agreement ?\ Nmnber? 
Rule ? Case ? Construction ? Rule ? I Gender ? 

Teacher. "I will now parse, by the improved programme, 'she' 
in the sentence, 'She saw me.' She is a pronoun agreeing with its 
antecedent, the person spoken of, in third, singular, feminine, Rule 
5, and is in the nominative case, subject of the verb 'saw,' Rule 15, 
'The subject of a finite verb must be in the nominative case.' I 
will also parse ' me ' in a similar manner. Me is a pronoun, agreeing 
with its antecedent, the person speaking, in the first, singular, com- 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

mon, Rule 5, and is in the objective case, the object of the verb 
'saw,' according to Rule 17, 'The object of a transitive verb in the 
active voice must be in the objective case.' 

"Pupils, I wish you to memorize, for the next recitation, these 
two rules just as I have given them to you. You will find them on 
pages 201, 202. The words 'transitive' and 'finite,' which occur in 
these rules, you do not now understand, perhaps, but I will explain them 
in a few days. I will now give some sentences, the italicized words 
of which you may parse in your exercise-book for the next recitation." 

1. You borrowed a book, and /laid it on the desk. 

2. Can you hear me as /study my grammar? 

3. That hat is mine, but you may wear it. 

4. Cheerful sunlight, you impart color to our cheeks. 

5. They shine like diamonds. 

6. What a beautiful world is ours! God made it. 

7. I can paint the landscape which you admire. 

8. Flowers are beautiful, but they soon fade. 

9. We wish to live in the home of the angels. 

10. Green tree and shrub and flower, you tell a wondrous 
story. 

It may be well to ask for the oral parsing of one or two nouns and 
pronouns by the enlarged programme before the class is excused. 

The teacher will be careful to use none but finite verbs in the active 
voice until these words are explained in due course. 



POSSESSIVE CASE: DECLENSION OF PERSONAL 
PRONOUNS, AND OF NOUNS. 

130. Criticism of Written Parsing. — Grading of each 

pupil on his book, and on the class register. 

131. Preliminary Drill. — Teacher. "Pupils, you have had 
two cases of nouns and pronouns; I will give you one more. When 
I say 'This is my book,' I mean the book belongs to me, I possess 
it ; ' my ' is, then, a pronoun denoting possession. In the sentence, 
'The sun's rays warm the earth,' I do not mean that the rays belong 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 41 

to the sun, but they come from the sun ; * sun's ' is a noun in the 
possessive case denoting source or origin. * This is my slate ' ; 'That 
is John's book.' Can you tell me what case the pronoun 'my' is in? 
Mary." 

Mary. " Possessive." 

Teacher. "Why, James?" 
James. "Because it denotes ownership." 

TeacJier. "Very good. Susan, in what case is the noun 'John's,' 
and why? " 

Susan. "Possessive, because it denotes ownership." 

Teacher. "The possessive case is used to denote ownership, au- 
thorship, etc. You notice, pupils, that these possessives have a dif- 
ferent form, to distinguish them from the nominative and objective 
cases. You would not say 'This is I slate,' or 'This is me slate,' 
but 'This is my slate.' Would you say 'That is John book,' or 'That 
is Joint's book?' In the sentence, 'John is a good boy,' in what case 
is the noun 'John 1 ? All together." 

Class. "Nominative." 

Teacher. "But if I say 'This is John's ball,' what case is the 
noun 'John's' in?' 1 

Class. "Possessive." 

Teacher. "Right. Now, then, James, will you tell me the differ- 
ence between the two forms of writing ' John ' ? " 

James. "One has a comma and the letter s added to 'John.'" 

Teacher. "Very good. The comma in that position is called an 
apostrophe. In nouns of the singular number, then, the possessive case 
is formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to the nominative 
form, but the possessive of plurals is formed by adding the apostrophe 
only ; as, The horse's head, The horses' heads, etc. Pronouns do not 
take 'j-, but change their form to indicate the different cases. I will 
parse a pronoun in the possessive case. Take ' my ' in the sentence 
'This is my slate.' My is a pronoun, personal, agreeing with its an- 
tecedent, the person speaking, in first, singular, common, Rule 5, and 
is in the possessive case, limiting the noun 'slate,' Rule 19: 'A noun 
or pronoun, limiting another noun or pronoun signifying a different 
person or thing, is in the possessive case.' I will now give you the 
declensions of personal pronouns and of nouns." 

Also, 'his' in the sentence, 'This is his hat.' His is a pronoun, 
personal, agreeing with its antecedent, the person spoken of in third, 
singular, common, Rule 5, and is in the possessive case, limiting 
'hat,' Rule IQ. 
H. Gram. — 4. 



42 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



132. Declensions of Personal Pronouns and 
Nouns. — 

Singular. Plural. 

!Nom. I, We, 

Poss. My or mine, Our or ours, 

Obj. Me. Us. 

Singular. Plural. 

Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

!Nom. You, Thou, You or ye, 

Poss. Your or yours, Thy or thine, Your or yours, 

Obj. You. Thee. You. 



Singular. 



2,d person. 



Mas. 
Nom. He, 
Poss. His, 
Obj. Him. 



Fern. Aleut. 
She, It, 

Her or Hers, Its, 
Her. It. 

Sing. Plu. 

Pen, Pens, 

Pen's, Pens', 

Pen, Pens. 



Plural. 



They, 

Their or theirs, 

Them. 

Sing. Plu. 

Man, Men, 

Man's, Men's, 

Man, Men. 



Sing. Plu. 

Nominative. Boy, Boys, 

Possessive. Boy's, Boys', 

Objective. Boy, Boys. 

Teacher. " I would like to have you write sentences, for your next 
lesson, containing these forms of the pronoun, in the order in which 
they stand in the columns. Construct one such for each pronoun, 
and when you have written the sentences you may write the parsings 
of each pronoun, as far as you are able, according to the programme 
which I gave you last. How many think they can do it?" 

Few express assent. 

Teacher. "Who can give me a sentence, now, containing the pro- 
noun * we ' properly used ? " 

Many hands up. 

Teacher. " Well, Sarah, you may try." 

Sarah. "We study grammar." 

Teacher. "Very well. Now, who will give a sentence containing 
* them ' properly used? James, will you?" 
James. "I lost my books this morning, and found them again." 

Teacher. "Very well, James. I think you will find no difficulty 
in writing these sentences. I would rather you would make sentences 
of your own than borrow them from this book or any other." 



NOUN— CLASSES. 43 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

133. Recitation of Lesson previously assigned, 

134. Preliminary Drill. — Teacher, " Pupils, you have 
learned the modifications of nouns, — person, number, gender, and 
case. I will now give you the classes of nouns. ' Mary is a cheer- 
ful girl'; 'John is a studious boy.' The nouns * boy ' and 'girl' 
apply to whole classes of individuals, while ' Mary ' and ' John ' are 
names of particular persons in those classes. In order that we may 
know where to use capital letters, we must understand this classifi- 
cation of nouns. Those nouns which are common to a whole class 
of persons or things are called common nouns; as, boy, city, mountain. 
Those names which are peculiar to individuals, as John, Boston, Alps, 
are called proper nouns. Now, pupils, how many can tell to which 
class the noun 'girl' belongs? As many as can may raise the hand." 

Hands up. 

Teacher. " Susan." 

Susan. "Common." 

Teacher. "Why? James." 
James. "Because it applies to a class of persons." 

Teacher. " Very well. Now, what kind of noun is * Susan Smith ' ? 
All together." 

Class. " Proper." 

Teacher. "Why?" 

Class. "Because it is the name of a single girl." 

Teacher. " Right. It is her property, and no one can change it 
without her consent. What class does the noun ' man ' belong to ? 
Mary." 

Mary. "Common." 

Teacher. "Can you name some proper nouns included under the 
class 'man'? Henry." 

Henry. "Abraham Lincoln, U. S. Grant, Horace Greeley." 

Teacher. "That's enough, Henry. I think you are all able now 
to distinguish the classes of nouns. If so, we are ready to complete 
our programme for parsing nouns. I will place the full programme 
on the blackboard, where you can all see it." 

(The teacher will place it on the board thus : Species ? Class ? {Sub* 
class ?) Person ? Number ? Gender ? Case ? Construction ? Rule ?) 



44 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Teacher. "I will ask Henry to rise and parse ' John ' in the sen- 
tence, 'John instructs Mary.'" 

Henry. "John is a noun, proper, third, singular, masculine, nom- 
inative, subject of the verb 'instructs,' Rule 15. " 

Teacher. ''Very good. Charles, you may now parse 'Mary.'" 

Charles. "Mary is a noun, proper, third, singular, feminine, ob- 
jective case, object of the verb 'instructs,' Rule 17." 

Teacher. "Susan, you may parse 'horse,' in the sentence, 'The 
horse eats corn.' " 

Susan. "Horse is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, 
nominative, subject of the verb 'eats,' Rule 15." 

Teacher. "Right. James, you may parse 'corn,' in the same sen- 
tence." 

James. " Corn is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, object- 
ive, object of the verb 'eats,' Rule 17." 

Teacher. "Very good. I will ask you at your next recitation to 
parse the words I shall indicate in the following sentences." 

1 . Ella lost her grammar. 

2. Mary's father bought a blue dress for her. 

3. My Jather's house is on the hill. 

4. Buy your goods at the people's store. 

5. No good boy will rob a bird's nest. 

6. The pupil's delight is in study. 

7. The sailor's life is full of danger. 

8. Mary bought some apples, and gave them to her sister. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 



135. Examination Of Papers. — Grading of books in neat- 
ness, on a scale of 1 — 5. This grading may be deferred till recess 
or intermission. 

136. Preliminary Drill. — TeacJur. " Before our programme 
for parsing pronouns can be completed, you will learn something of 
the classes of pronouns. There are three classes, which I will try 
to show you by examples. You may answer in concert ; what person 
does 'I' always stand for?" 



PRONOUN— CLASSES. 45 

Class. "First person." 

Teacher. "Right. 'He'?" 

Class. "Third." 

Teac/ier. "'You'?" 

Class. "Second person." 

Teacher. "Very good. Does 'you' ever stand for the first per- 
son? Mary." 

Mary. "It does not." 

Teacher. "No; and you will notice that 'I' never stands for any 
person but the first ; ' you ' always stands for the second person. 
Because 'I,' 'thou,' 'you,' 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' always stand each for 
the same grammatical person, the first, second, or third, they are 
called personal pronouns. I will now give you the second class. In 
the sentence, 'I who saw it can explain the matter,' in what person 
is 'I'? James." 
James. 'First person." 

Teacher. "In what person, then, is 'who'? Susan." 

Susan. "First person." 

Teacher. "In what person is 'who' in the sentence, You who ate 
the apples can tell how it tasted'? Henry." 

Henry. "Second person." 

Teacher. "'He who studies will learn.' 'Who' stands in place 
of what word? Jane." 
Jane. "He." 

Teacher. "It is, then, in what person?" 
Jane. "Third." 

Teacher. "You see, pupils, that some pronouns do not always 
represent the same grammatical person; they are 'who,' 'which,' and 
'that,' and sometimes 'as.' These are called relative pronouns. 

"The third class of pronouns is used for asking questions, and 
are called interrogative pronouns ; as, ' What shall I do ? ' ' Who 
said so ? ' I will now give you the full programme for parsing the 
pronoun." 

Species? Class? (Sub-class?) Antecedent? Agreement? Person? 
Number? Gender? Rule? Case? Construction? Rule? 

Teacher. "I would like to have some one rise and parse ' I ' in 
the sentence, ' I who saw it will explain the matter.' Who will try 
it?" 

Hands up. 

Teacher. ' ' Julia. ' ' 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Julia. "I is a pronoun, personal, agreeing with its antecedent, 
the person speaking, in the first, singular, common, Rule 5, nomina- 
tive, subject of 'will explain,' Rule 15." 

Teacher. "Very good. Charles, you may parse 'who ' by the same 
programme." 

Charles. "Who is a pronoun, relative, agreeing with its antece- 
dent, 'I,' in first, singular, common, Rule 5, nominative, subject of 
'saw,' Rule 15." 

Teacher. "I will now parse an interrogative pronoun for you. I 
wish you to notice particularly the antecedent and the construction. 
In the sentence, 'Who told you so?' 'who' is a pronoun, interrogative, 
agreeing with its antecedent, in the answer of the question, in per- 
son, number, and gender unknown, Rule 5, nominative, subject of 
'told,' Rule 15. I think you can now parse almost any pronoun. 
For the next recitation you may parse, in your exercise-books, the 
italicized words in the following sentences:" 

i. The boy who laughs grows fat. 

2. I respect my teacher. 

3. The scholar who studies diligently will grow wise. 

4. The apples which you gave me were sour. 

5. We should be kind to every body. 

6. Who can recite his lesson well? 

7. There is the fly that bit my nose. 

8. The sun gives light and heat, which make plants and 
trees grow. 

9. Who swam over the river? 

10. Whom did you call? 

11. Those are the same as you gave me. 

137. Criticism of Written Parsings. — By the pupils' 

changing books with each other, and reading the parsing of a fellow- 
pupil as his parsing may be called for. 

138. Further Drill in Pronouns. — Teacher.—" Pupils, I 

have one thing more to tell you about relative pronouns. They are 
related to their antecedents in such a way as to connect sentences. 
For example: 'Here is the girl who lost her book.' There are here 
two sentences : ' Here is the girl ' is one sentence, and ' who lost her 
book ' is another, since both have verbs in them, as every sentence 



PRONOUN. 47 

must have a verb in it. The relative introduces the sentence which 
modifies the antecedent, and thus connects the two sentences. For 
this reason I would prefer to call it a * connecting pronoun ' ; but you 
may follow the usage of the grammars, and call it a relative pronoun. 
I will now give you definitions for the three classes of pronouns, 
which I wish you to memorize for the next recitation. 

* * I . A personal pronoun is one that always stands for the same gram- 
matical person. 

"2. A relative pronoun is one that may stand for any grammatical 
person, and connects clauses. 

"3. An interrogative pronoun is one used for asking a question. 

" You may also memorize the declensions of relative pronouns for 
the next recitation." 

139. Declension of the Relative Pronoun. 

Nominative, who, which, 

Possessive, whose, whose, 

Objective, whom, which. 

For the next parsing lesson you may take the words in italics in 
the following sentences : " 

i. Where does the sun rise? 

2. The earth which we inhabit is nearly spherical. 

3. My ink is black : yours is blue. 

4. Who made the earth and the stars ? 

5. They who are temperate in all things will live long. 

6. The book that lies on the table is mine. 

7. The team that I bought broke my wagon in pieces. 

8. We must answer for every idle word that we speak. 

Teacher. "You will notice on page 42, in the declensions of per- 
sonal pronouns, that some of them have two possessive forms. The 
first form is always used with the noun. The second is used without 
the noun, and limits the noun understood. For example : In the sen- 
tence, 'My ink is black: yours is blue,' 'yours' is a pronoun, per- 
sonal, agreeing with its antecedent, the person spoken to, in second, 
singular, common, Rule 5, possessive case, and limits the noun 'ink,' 
understood, Rule 19. Pupils, you will find another" similar construc- 
tion in your lesson for to-morrow." 



PART TWO. 

ETYMOLOGY.— THE NOUN. 

140. Definition. — A noun is a name ; as, fames, Boston, 
book, tree; truth, mind, hope, desire. 

141. When used as a na?ne, any sign, letter, word, phrase, or sen- 
tence, may become a noun ; as, * is called an asterisk ; A is a vowel ; 
Let us have no ifs and ands about it; " My Wife and I" is a novel; 
" We celebrate this day," was printed on their banners. 

142. Classes. — Proper and Common. 

143. A proper noun is a name peculiar to an individual, 
or class of individuals; as, Charles, New York, the Amazon, 
the Germans, Alleghenies. 

144* Two or more words, forming one name, are parsed as one 
noun ; as, Central Park, John Greenleaf Whittier. 

145* Every proper noUn must begin with a capital letter. 

146. A common noun is a name which belongs to many 
objects in common; as, house, farm, cat, animal; industry, 
pleasure, mercy, goodness. 

147. Common nouns have three special sub-classes : Ab- 
stract, Collective, Verbal. 

148. An abstract noun is the name of some quality; as, 
sweetness, generosity, length. 

149. A collective noun is a name, singular in form but 
plural in meaning; as, crowd, company, throng, herd, audience, 
fleet. 

150. A verbal noun is the name of an action or state of 
being ; as, precedence, existence, declaration, description, substitu- 
tion. 

(48) 



ETYMOLOGY— THE NOUN. 49 

15 1 • Participles become verbal nouns by prefixing an article or 
adjective ; as, The giving of good advice ; Such measuring of distances 
is very convenient and accurate. 

152. A common noun, with the definite article, is sometimes used 
as a proper noun ; as, The Park, The Capitol, The Express. 

153* Common nouns begin with capital letters, only when they 
begin a sentence, or are of marked importance in a sentence. 

154. Modifications. — Person, Number, Gender, Case. 

155. Person is that modification of nouns and pronouns 
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, and 
the person or thing spoken of. 

156. There are three grammatical persons: First, Second, 
and Third. 

157. The first person denotes the name of the speaker; 
as, /, Darius, do make a decree; Grant forgiveness to us, 
suppliants. 

158. The first person, as applied to nouns, belongs to names of 
persons only, or things personified. 

I59' A noun of the first person is found in no other construction 
than that of apposition with a pronoun of the first person, and in 
the nominative absolute by subscription. 

160. The second person denotes the name of the person 
spoken to; as, I appeal to you, Mr. Chairman; Sarah, you 
may come here. 

161. A noun of the second person can have but two constructions ; 
namely, in apposition with a pronoun of the second person, or in the 
noviinative absolute by direct address. 

162. The second person, as applied to nouns, belongs to persons 
only, or to things personified. 

163. The third person denotes the name of the person or 
thing spoken of; as, Whittier has written a beautiful poem 
entitled, ' ' Snoiv-Bound." 

164. The third person is often used for the first; as, Y^ur daugh- 
ter pleads; hear, O my father. Sometimes, for the second; as, The 

Lord cause his face to shine upon us. 
H. Gram. — 5. 



SO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

165. The third person is used in all constructions, except the nom- 
inative absolute by direct address, by apposition with the first per- 
sonal pronoun, and by subscription. 

166. A predicate noun is usually in the third person, without re- 
gard to the person of the subject; as, Thou art the man; I am the 
physician. 

167. Number is that modification of nouns and pronouns 
which distinguishes unity and plurality. 

168. There are two numbers : Singular and Plural. 

169. The singular number denotes but one; as, The 
horse runs; The boy walks. 

170. Some nouns are found only in the singular; as, Gold, wheat, 
temperance, drunkenness, poetry, chemistry, integrity, music. 

171* Proper names are found, usually, in the singular only. 

172. The plural number denotes more than one; as, 
The horses run; The boys walk. 

I73* Some nouns are found ip. the plural only; as, Annals, ashes, 
billiai'ds, bellows, manners, morals, pincers, scissors, snuffers, tongs. 

I74* The plural is formed regularly by adding s to the singular; 
as, Boy, boys. 

I75' Nouns in s, sh, ch, aspirates, z, x, 0, or **, usually form the 
plural in es ; as, Lens-es, brush-es, birch-es, quiz-es, fox-es, hero-es, al- 
kali-es. 

176. After a consonant, y is changed into ies, for the plural; as, 
Fairy, fairies. 

177. Nouns in / or fe, usually form the plural by changing the 
f or fe into ves ; as, Wife, wives ; leaf, leaves. Such nouns as turf, 
grief, etc., form their plurals regularly. 

178. Some nouns form the plural irregularly; as, Man, men; child, 
children; mouse, mice. 

I79« Compounds ending in ful or full, form the plural regularly; 
as, Spoonful, spoonfuls ; handful, handfuls. 

180. The nouns, Caiman, German, Mussulman, talisman, Turko- 
man, not being compounds of the noun man, form their plurals reg- 
ularly ; as, Caimans, Germans, Mussulmans, talismans, Turkonians. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE NOUN. 



51 



181. Some nouns have two plurals of different significations; as, 
Brother, brothers (of the same parents) ; brethren (of the same frater- 
nity). Die, dies (used in coining) ; dice (used in gaming). Fish, 
fishes (individuals) ; fish (the species). Penny, pennies (coins) ; pence 
(the species). 

182. In compounds, the sign of the plural is commonly added 
to the important part; as, Fathers-in-laiv ; fiy-traps ; courts-martial; 
Song- Queens. 

183. The best usage annexes the sign of the plural to the name, 
when a title and a nattie are used together; as, The Miss Smiths; the 
Miss Browns. 

184. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, szvine, cat- 
tle, species, alms, corps, measles, nuptials. 

185. Foreign nouns adopted into our language, generally retain 
their original plural. Those marked r, in the following list, have 
also a regular plural. 



Automaton, 


automata, r. 


Genus, 


genera. 


Axis, 


axes. 


Hypothesis, 


hypotheses. 


Basis, 


bases. 


Lamina, 


laminae. 


Beau, 


beaux, r. 


Magus, 


magi. 


Cherub, 


cherubim, r. 


Medium, 


media, r. 


Criterion, 


criteria. 


Nebula, 


nebulae. 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses. 


Phenomenon, 


phenomena. 


Encomium, 


encomia, r-. 


Radius, 


radii. 


Erratum, 


errata. 


Stratum, 


strata. 


Focus, 


foci. 


Vertebra, 


vertebrae. 


Formula, 


formulae, r. 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosi. 


Genius, 


genii. 


Vortex, 


vortices, r. 



186. The plural of letters, marks, signs, and figures, is formed 
by adding the apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter s ; as, algebraic nota- 
tion employs x's, fs, -J- 's, -*- 's ; add the 2's and io's together. 

187. In cases of doubt, refer to Webster's or Worcester's Dic- 
tionary. 

188. Gender is that modification of nouns and pronouns 
which distinguishes sex. 

189. There are four genders: Masculine, Feminine, Com- 
mon, and Neuter. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

190. Names of males are masculine ; as, man, boy, father, 
son. 

igi. Most masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine; some, 
however, have not; as, baker, brewer, carpenter, lawyer. 

192. Names used to denote both genders, though applicable, 
strictly, to males only, are masculine or feminine, according to their 
use ; as, heir, poet, teacher. 

193. Names of females are feminine ; as, woman, girl, 
mother, daughter. 

194. Some feminine nouns have no corresponding masculine; as, 
laundress, seamstress. 

195. Names which apply in common to males and females 
are common in gender; as, neighbor, friend, parent, child. 

196. Nouns which are names of objects without sex, are 
Neuter ; as, tree, house, goodness, tribe, race, sex. 

197- Collective nouns are neuter when the objects are considered 
as a unit ; as, The mob swept everything in its way ; The herd moved 
its huge mass slowly over the prairie ; The sex is not a unit with re- 
gard to its own rights. 

198. Neuter nouns become masculine or feminine by personifica- 
tion ; as, The Sun holds his fiery course through mid-heaven ; The 
Moon shed her pale light on that dismal battle scene. 

199- I n speaking of inferior animals, and of infants, the distinc- 
tion of sex is not observed ; as, The swallow builds its nest in chim- 
neys ; The child is in its new carriage. 

200. The sexes are distinguished by their names in three ways: 

201. By different words ; as, boy, girl ; brother, sister ; beau, belle ; 
king, queen; son, daughter ; youth, damsel; swain, nymph. 

202. By different terminations ; as, actor, actress ; bridegroom, bride; 
hero, heroine; lion, lioness ; prince, princess ; giant, giantess. 

203. By prefixes and suffixes ; as, landlora, landlady; grandfather, 
grandmother ; manservant, maidservant ; male child, female child. 

204. Case is that modification of nouns and pronouns 
which, by means of form or position, indicates their relation 
to other words, or their independent use. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE NOUN. 53 

205. Nouns have three cases : Nominative, Possessive, Objective. 

206. The Nominative Case is that form or position of 
the noun or pronoun, which is used to indicate the subject 
of a finite verb. 

207. The nominative case is used with nouns in four dependent 
constructions, and in five absolute positions. 

208. The subject of a finite verb ; as, Mary sings ; Our friends 
have come. 

209. In the predicate ; as, James became a lawyer ; They are mas- 
ters of the situation. 

210. In apposition with a noun or pronoun ; as, I, John Smith, do 
solemnly affirm ; Mr. Jones, the banker, has gone to Europe. 

211. In apposition with a sentence or phrase; as, Mary gave the 
old man a cup of water, a kindness which he seemed to appreciate; 
His finding me there, a providence I can never forget, saved me from 
utter ruin. 

212. The construction of apposition is used to explain or emphasize 
the leading noun or pronoun of which the appositive is a modifier. 

213. Absolute positions. 

214. By direct address ; as, George, you may go with me; O virtue! 
when will all men follow thy guidance. 

215. By exclamation; as, Nonsense! it can't be done; Fiddlesticks! 
it isn't worth the powder. 

216. By inscription ; titles of books, captions, signs for business 
houses, labels ; superscriptions and subscriptions are in the nominative 
absolute by inscription ; as, Webster's Dictionary, etc. 

Remark. — It is unnecessary to suppose such words are a part of 
some sentence. 

217. By pleonasm; as, Gad, a troop shall overcome him; The stars, 
they shall shine forever. 

218. With a participle ; as, The hack having gone, we were obliged 
to walk to the railroad. 

Remark. — Though the construction of the nominative absolute with 
a participle has no grammatical relation with the sentence with which 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it is connected, it always has a close logical relation, that of an ad- 
verb, generally limiting the verb of the sentence. 

219. The Possessive Case is that form of the noun or 
pronoun which is used to limit a noun of different significa- 
tion. 

220. The possessive case denotes possession, origin, kind, 
authorship, etc. ; as, Jane's slate ; The moon's gentle beams ; 
Boys' hats; Blair's Rhetoric. 

221. The possessive case is used in three constructions: 

222. Limiting a noun of different signification; as, Mary's book; 
Day's Composition. 

223. Limiting a noun bf the same signification when it is in ap- 
position ; as, Let it be according to his Highness, the King's pleasure. 

224. Limiting a participle as its subject ; as, John's being there 
was taken as evidence of his guilt. 

225- Nouns form their possessives in the singular by adding an 
apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter s to the nominative form ; in the plural, 
when the nominative ends in s, by adding only the apostrophe; as, 
singular, The boy's hat; plural, Boys' hats. 

226. Irregular plurals form the possessive in the same manner as 
the singular ; as, The oxen's yoke ; JVomen's hats. 

227. The s is frequently omitted when it would occasion several 
successive sounds of s; as, For peace* sake; For conscience' sake. 

228. The apostrophe and s are simply an indication of plurality 
when added to letters ', figures, etc.; as, 9's, n's, x's. 

229. In words like sheep, deer, swine, etc., which have the singular 
and plural alike, the s is placed before the apostrophe in forming the 
possessive plural ; as, sheeps', deers', swines'. 

230. The possessive sign ('s) is an abbreviation of the old English 
genitive ending, es or is; the sign (') being called an apostrophe, be- 
cause it indicates the omission of the e or i. 

But in the plural, as, boys', the (') is simply a sign of the possessive, 
and not a mark of abbreviation. 

231. Compound words have the sign of possession at the end; as, 
President Grant's Proclamation. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE NOUN. 55 

232. When the possessive is followed by a noun in apposition, or 
by a prepositional phrase, or by a pronominal adjective, the sign is 
annexed to the word immediately preceding the limited noun ; as, That 
is Mr. Good the tailor's goose ; The Secretary of the T?'easury's desire 
was to pay off the 7-20's ; Every body e/se's business but his own. 

233- The possessive is often used with the limited noun under- 
stood ; as, At Mr. Gilchrist's [store], the dry goods merchant ; That 
is a picture of my father's [pictures]. 

234- I n the expression, 'She is a wife of my brother's,' brother 's 
is in the possessive by enallage, used for the objective. 

2 35- Some compound words omit both the hyphen and the sign 
of the possessive ; as, hogshead, Collinsville. 

236. A noun or pronoun limiting a participle used as a noun, is 
in the possessive case ; as, They objected to Mary's studying grammar. 

237. The Objective Case is that form or position of a 
noun or pronoun which is used to indicate the object of a 
transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition. 

238. This case is used with nouns in five regular constructions, 
and in one by enallage. 

239. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice; as, The 
man Jield the boy. 

240. The object of a preposition ; as, The city of New York. 

241. The subject of an infinitive ; as, He desired the army to march 
at daylight ; Mary wanted Ja7iies to go home. 

242. In the predicate ; as, They supposed him to be the janitor; 
My friends desired me to become a merchant ; He reported them to 
be the men who are surveying the new railroad route; His father 
desired him to be called John. 

243. In the predicate with an infinitive, whose subject is a sentence 
or a phrase ; as, That the prisoner was there at the time, the jury con- 
sidered [to be] a link in the chain of evidence which secured his 
conviction ; We deemed his being our enemy [to be] the very 7-eason 
why we should feed him. 

244. In apposition with another objective ; as, That whip belongs 
to Mr. Smith, the wagoner; I have seen the planet Saturn, 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

245- In apposition with a sentence or phrase ; as, The Professor 
noticed that Samuel came in time, a rare circumstance indeed ; He 
amused the children by relating anecdotes, an exercise which he ev- 
idently enjoyed himself. 

246. By enallage for the Possessive ; as, I never thought of Mary 
coming ; for, I never thought of Mary's coming. There is no harm 
in women studying politics ; for, There is no harm in women's study- 
ing politics. 

Remark. — For the cases in which the objective of pronouns is used 
for the nominative by enallage, see page 66, Art. 324. 

247* Some grammarians claim that nouns denoting distance, time, 
weight, measure, etc., are independent of construction, or if they please, 
independent in their construction ; but they have a depe7ident con- 
struction, generally as adverbial elements, and are better disposed of 
by supposing a preposition understood ; as, I walked [over or through] 
a mile ; Susan practices music [for] an hour [on] each day; The herd 
of cattle weighed [to the amount of] ten tons ; The potatoes meas- 
ured [the quantity of] a bushel; He was six feet tall; (He was tall 
[to the height of] six feet). The awkwardness of supplying such 
complex prepositions as "to the extent of," or "to the amount of," 
is not as vicious as the erroneous assumption that these classes of 
nouns are " independent," or "are put in the objective independent." 

248. The objective case, with the preposition of, is frequently used 
for the possessive case, for euphony, or to avoid tautology ; as, The 
grave of Washington; The Young Ladies' Sewing Society's Contribu- 
tion ; better, The Contribution of the Young Ladies' Sewing Society, 

249- Many verbs signifying to ask, to teach, to give, etc., are fol- 
lowed by two objects in different senses. Most grammarians call one 
of these the direct, and the other the indirect, object. I prefer to 
reject the term "indirect object" altogether, as involving a contra- 
diction, and supply the preposition with one of the objects, making 
thus an adverbial ele?nent of what these grammarians call an " indirect 
object." For example: I gave [to] Henry my book; He taught [to] 
the children grammar ; She awarded [to] John the prize ; I asked the 
boy [for] his name; or, I asked [of] the boy his name. 

250. When the verb is found in the passive with either object as 
its subject, the other may be governed by a preposition understood ; 
as, My book was given [to] Henry ; Henry was given [with] my 
book ; Grammar was taught [to] the children ; The children were 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 



57 



taught [in] grammar ; The boy was asked [for] his name ; His name 
was asked [of] the boy. 

25^- Not unfrequently the object of a preposition (understood) 
after an active transitive verb, is made the grammatical subject of 
the passive voice; as, He promised [to] me a book; /was promised 
a book. In such cases, it is better to consider the logical subject, 
'book,' in this example, as governed by some preposition understood, 
rather than to demand a reconstruction of the sentence, under the 
plea of false syntax. The best usage warrants this illogical use of 
the remote object as the subject of the passive verb. Even those 
grammarians who give such examples as " false syntax," or "loose 
construction," use the same false syntax and loose construction re- 
peatedly themselves in their own discussions. 



252. Declension of Nouns.- 
and case. Thus : 



-Nouns are declined to denote number 



Singular. 


Nom. 


child, 


girl, 


lady, 


ox, boy, 




Poss. 


child's, 


girl's, 


lady's, 


ox's, boy's, 




Obj. 


child, 


girl 


lady, 


ox, boy, 


Plural. 


Nom. 


children, 


girl's, 


ladies, 


oxen, boys, 




Poss. 


children's, 


girls', 


ladies', 


oxen's, boys', 




Obj. 


children, 


girls, 


ladies, 


oxen, boys. 


Proper names are 


declined th 


us : 








No?n. 


Mary, 




John, 


James, 




Poss. 


Mary's, 




John's, 


James's, 




Obj. 


Mary, 




John, 


James. 



THE PRONOUN. 



253. Definition. — A pronoun is a word used in the place 
of a noun ; as, The colonel rode at the head of his regiment, 
which was proud of him. 

254. That word, phrase, or sentence for which the pronoun 
stands, is called the antecedent ; as, James lost his penknife; 
To have restored the monarchy, which then seemed probable, 
would have ruined the nation; He humbly i?nplored the con- 
queror's clemency ; to which the haughty victor gave no heed. 



53 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

255. The antecedent itself may be another pronoun; as, That is he 
of whom you spoke. 

256. The antecedent precedes its pronoun; except in (1) interrog- 
ative sentences, where it follows in the answer to the question ; as, 
Who dealt with you? John; and (2) in case of the introductory it; 
as, It is they, where it takes they as its antecedent, and (3) in hyper- 
bation ; as, "His father's counsel and mother's tears the boy treated 
with disdain." 

257. Classes. — Personal \ Relative, Interrogative. 

258. A personal pronoun is one that always stands for the 
same grammatical person; /, always for the first; Thou or 
you, always for the second ; He, she, and //, always for the 
third. 

259. Personal pronouns have the subclasses Simple and Compound. 

260. The simple personal pronouns are, 7, thou or you, he, she, it; 
and their plurals, we, ye, they, etc 

261. The reflexive personal pronouns are 7?iyself, thyself, himself, 
herself, itself ; and their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, etc. 

262. A relative pronoun is one that may stand for any 
grammatical person ; and connects clauses ; as, / who speak 
will lead the way; You who know, should speak out; These 
are they who came from afar. In these different examples, 
the relative, who, stands for all the grammatical persons; the 
first, second, and third. 

263- Relative pronoitns have the subclasses Simple, Compound, and 
Double. 

2*64. The Simple relatives are who, which, that, and as. 

265- Who is used only for persons, or for inanimate objects per- 
sonified ; as, These are the men who make our laws; And thou art 
Death, who dealest thy favors with impartial hand. 

266. Who is sometimes used with its antecedent understood ; as, 
Who steals my purse, steals trash. 

267. Which is used for brute animals and for inanimate things ; 
as, The horse which you bought yesterday ran away with a wagon 
which cost me" one hundred dollars. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 59 

268. Which is sometimes a pronominal adjective ; as, He labors 
earnestly to make me a grammarian, for which purpose I myself will 
labor also. 

269. Which is also sometimes an interrogative pronominal adjective; 
as, Which [one] will you have ? 

270. That and as are used for persons, animals, and things; as, 
Show me the boy that loves his studies ; Name such persons as you 
please ; The questions that were discussed will be debated again ; Give 
me such things as are most convenient for you. 

271. That is a pronominal adjective when it precedes its noun 
expressed or understood ; as, That boy is lame ; That is my book. 

272. That is sometimes a conjunction ; as, Many persons hoped 
that the railroad would be constructed on the present survey. 

273- The relative that, when in the objective case, can not follow 
its governing word ; as, The caravan that you described to us is com- 
ing ; The men that you spoke of are Arabs. We can not say, The 
men of that you spoke are Arabs. 

274- As is generally an adverb, a conjunction, or a preposition ; 
but is always a relative pronoun when used after the words such, same, 
and as many. For example : Such as desire, may come and welcome ; 
They are the same as you saw yesterday; "To as many as received 
him, to them gave he power to become the sons of God." In the 
first sentence, as relates to persons, understood, for its antecedent, 
and is the subject of desire. In the next example, as is the object 
of saw. 

Many grammarians deny to as any relative force in any arrange- 
ment. Their mistake seems to be in failing to carry their analytic 
process far enough. It is obvious even in Dr. Bullions's own ex- 
ample (Bullions's Grammar, page 320), "Bring such books as are 
wanted," that as is a relative pronoun. Bullions has supplied an 
assumed ellipsis, thus: "Bring such books as [those which] are 
wanted." He has left 'those'' without construction. What construc- 
tion must be given it ? Evidently ' those ' relates to ' books ' under- 
stood, which is the subject of ' are ' understood. We then read it 
thus: "Bring such books as [those books are which] are wanted." 
The question now is, Is ' are ' attributive or copulative ? l Are ' is 
surely copulative, and must connect some attribute with its subject, 
1 books.' That attribute is undeniably the relative pronoun ■ as,' which 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

thus is in the predicate nominative with the verb 'are/ referring to 
the same thing as its subject, 'books.' 

In his effort to avoid calling * as ' a pronoun, Dr. Bullions has made 
a bungling sentence, which serves, when thoroughly analyzed, to con- 
vict him of error, and to show conclusively the relative nature of ' as-' ; 
hence I prefer the original sentence, parsing ' as ' as a relative pro- 
noun, the subject of the verb are wanted. This gives the sense in- 
tended ; while his assumption of an ellipsis gives another meaning to 
the sentence, and even then makes ' as ' a relative pronoun. 

275. The Compound relatives are formed by adding ever or 
soever to the simple relatives who and which, and to the 
double relative what; as, whoever, whosoever, whichever, which- 
soever, etc. 

276. When thus compounded, relatives have a distributive signi- 
fication, and the antecedent is frequently understood ; as, Whoever 
comes first, will be first served ; that is, Any person who comes first, 
etc. 

277. The Double relative is What. 

278. What is generally used for things, but sometimes with per- 
sons for its antecedent; as, You may command whatever soldiers you 
can muster; All persons whatsoever are forbidden to enter these 
premises. 

279- What is sometimes used for other parts of speech ; as, 

280. An interrogative pronominal adjective ; What evidence can you 
bring ? 

281. What is so frequently employed for the conjunction that, by 
good speakers, that the usage seems to be warranted ; as, We had no 
idea *but what he was honest. 

282. An interjection; as, What! must I suffer defeat? 

283. What is sometimes an expletive; as, I tell you what, that's 
a fine horse. 

284. What is also sometimes an adverb ; as, What by intrigue and 
what by bribery, he accomplished his object. Here what is equiva- 
lent to partly. 

285. The chief characteristic of the relative, what, is its double use; 
being equivalent to that [thing] which, all which, the [thing] which, or 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 61 

those [things] which, etc. For example : You may pay me whatever 
money you have ; that is, You may pay me all the money whichever 
you have ; You may command whatever soldiers you can muster ; that 
is, You may command all the soldiers whichever you can muster; 
Whatever happens, you may rely on me ; that is, You may rely on 
me, notwithstanding anything whichever happens. In these sentences, 
what and its equivalent are in italics. It will be seen that the ex- 
panded sentences give the equivalent expressions for what. Some 
good grammarians have made an effort to explain away the double 
nature of what. For example, in the sentence, I care not in what 
manner you accomplish it, the sense is this: I care not concerning 
the manner in which you accomplish it. Many grammarians make 
what in this sentence a simple demonstrative; but the truth is, it has 
three functions. Since it contains a relative, it possesses the (i) con- 
nective and (2) representative functions of the relative ; since it contains 
the definite article, the, or the demonstrative, that, it possesses the 
(3) distinguishing power of these words. Here are, then, two func- 
tions of what, which these grammarians fail to recognize. Whatsoever 
way he turns, ruin stares him in the face ; that is, [In] that way [into] 
whichsoever he turns, ruin stares him in the face. 

All persons whatsoever are forbidden to enter these premises ; that 
is, All those persons whosoever [they may be] are forbidden, etc. 

What sometimes contains an expletive construction; as, Whatever 
I do, he declares it to be wrong; equivalent to, He declares it to be 
wrong, the thing whichever I do. Here, thing, the antecedent part of 
whatever, is in the nominative absolute by pleonasm. 

286. The relative should be placed as near as possible to its an- 
tecedent, to avoid ambiguity ; as, Rehoboam, who reigned after the 
division, was the son of Solomon ; rather than, Rehoboam, the son 
of Solomon, who reigned after the division. 

287. An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking a 
question; as, Who are you? What is that? 

288. The Interrogatives are Who and What. 

289. Who, as an interrogative, is used only for persons. 

290. What, as an interrogative, is used only for things. 

In many sentences, what may be considered either an interrogative 
or a double relative ; as, I know what was wanted. This is equiva- 
lent as an interrogative to, I know [the answer of the question] 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

what was wanted ; or to a double relative ; as, I know the thing 
which was wanted. Again, I heard what prevented his coming. 
This is equivalent to, I heard [the answer of the question] what 
prevented his coming ; or to this, I heard the thing which prevented 
his coming. 

The interrogative who has been erroneously treated. I know who 
took the book. In this sentence, 'who 1 is an interrogative. I do 
not mean to say I know the person who took the book ; for he is 
one of our number whom we all know, and to announce that I know 
him would give no information. The plain meaning is, I can answer 
the question, Who took the book ? 

In the sentence, I learned, many years ago, who was the first 
President, I do not intend to say that I learned George Washington, 
who was, etc., but I learned [how to answer the question], Who 
was the first President? 

291. In an early period, whether was used as an interrogative pro- 
noun ; as, Whether is greater, the gold or the temple? (Matt, 
xxiii : 17.) But this use is now obsolete. 

292. Most grammarians have classed which among the interroga- 
tive pronouns ; but it may easily be shown that, in all such cases, 
it is an interrogative pronominal adjective. All grammarians class 
which as the definite interrogative ; and because it is thus definite, it 
can not, plainly, be an interrogative pronoun at all ; for the sense is 
always, which one of two ; the noun must be invariably understood. 
For example : Which will you have ? Here, as in all such uses of 
'which,'' there is a definite person or thing in the mind. Again: 
Which remains? In the mind of the speaker, there is a definite 
word limited by * which '/ as, Which piece of goods remains ? Which 
person remains? Hence, which can not be an interrogative pronoun. 

293. Modifications. — Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

294. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in per- 
son, number, and gender. 

295- The first and second personal pronouns are of the common 
gender, when not definitely determined by the antecedent. They 
are never neuter ; but when they refer to inanimate objects person- 
ified, those objects are considered as either masculine or feminine. 

296. Only the third personal pronoun has distinct forms for the 
genders ; he, masculine ; she, feminine ; it, neuter. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 6$ 

297- In interrogative sentences, when the answer is not known, 
the interrogative pronoun may be said to agree with its antecedent, 
in person, number, and gender, unknown. 

2g8. Rulers, editors, and others, who speak for a community or 
a class of persons, use we for /, by a figure of speech called Enal- 
lage. The verb, in such cases, is always plural; as, "We [the editor] 
were impressed by the speaker's earnestness." 

299. Scripture, solemn style, poetry, and the Society of Friends, em- 
ploy thou instead of you. You was originally used only in the plural, 
and is still constructed with only the plural form of verbs, but now 
represents a single person ; as, You are the very man. 

300. // has several peculiar uses : 

301. Though neuter, it is sometimes used for infants, or for per- 
sons whose sex is unknown, and animals; as, The infant soon learns 
to return its mother's smile; The rabbit ran so fast that the dog could 
not catch it. 

302. //, as the subject of the verb 'be,' is frequently followed 
by an antecedent which it represents, but with which it does not 
agree: in such cases it is an introductory word; as, It is they; It is 
John and Susan. 

303. It is frequently used for an obvious antecedent, definitely 
understood. For example : The weather ; as, // is cold ; // rains ; 
The ground ; as, // is very muddy ; The time ; as, // is nine o'clock. 

304. It is sometimes expletive : 

305. In the nominative, as introductory to the sentence. For 
example : It is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong. To suffer 
wrong is the logical subject of is; while 'it' is the apparent or 
grammatical subject. 

306. In the objective ; as, I believed it to be necessary that I 
should go home when I did. The apparent or grammatical objective 
subject of the infinitive 'to be,' is it; while the true or logical sub- 
ject is the sentence, 'That I should go home when I did.' 

307. A "euphonic" (?) slang expletive; as, Come, trip it as you 
go ; Go it while you are young. 

308. The speaker, in alluding to others in connection with him- 
self, should generally first mention the person addressed, and himself 



6 4 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



last ; as, You and he and I are playmates. Not, however, You and 
I made a great mistake ; but, more courteously, I and you made a 
great mistake. 

309. Case. — The case of pronouns, like that of nouns, 
indicates their relation to other words in a sentence, or their 
independent use, but is generally determined by their form. 

310. Declension of the personal pronouns : 

Singular, Plural. 

!Nom. I, We, 

Poss. My or mine, Our or ours, 

Obj. Me, Us. 

Singular. PluraL 







Ordinary style. Solemn style. 






C Nom. 


You, 


Thou, 


You or ye, 


2d Person. 


) Poss. 


Your 


or yours, Thy or Thine, 


Your or yours. 




1 Obj. 


You, 


Thee, 
Singular. 


You or ye. 
Plural. 




Mas. 


Fern. Neut. 






C Nom. 


He, 


She, It, 


They, 


3d Person. . 


) Poss. 


His, 


Her or hers, Its, 


Their or theirs, 




1 Obj. 


Him, 


Her, It, 


Them. 






Declension of the relative pronoun. 








Sing. 


and Plu. Sing, and Plu, 




Nom. 




Who, Which, 






Poss. 




Whose, Whose, 






Obj. 




W 7 hom, Which. 





311. Peculiarities of the Possessive case of pronouns. 

312. Forms for the possessive: When the limited noun is under- 
stood, the possessive is strengthened in every case, save that of his 
and its. Thus: This book is yours ; that is hers; but there are ours 
and theirs. * Yours,' 'hers,' 'ours,' and 'theirs' obviously limit book, 
or books, expressed or understood as the subject of the verb. 

Several grammarians have fallen into error concerning the con- 
struction of 'mine,' 'yours,' etc. For example: In one popular 
grammar, 'hers,' in the sentence, "That book is hers, not yours," 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 65 

is parsed as a "pronoun; possessive; antecedent ' book'' ; neuter gen- 
der" etc. This ignores the distinctions of gender, and makes 'hers/ 
which represents the owner, agree with ' book ' as the antecedent, in 
the neuter gender. Another ' Normal Grammar ' makes ' mine ' a 
noun in the objective case: "John is a friend of mine" The word 
1 mine ' limits friends understood ; and this expression is equivalent 
to "John is one of my friends." The word 'mine' in this connection 
evidently limits a plural noun. Whenever it apparently limits a 
singular noun it is in the possessive by enallage, used for the ob- 
jective ; as, "That nose of yours"; "That wife of mine"; "That 
husband of hers," etc. See art. 1254. 

These constructions are incorrect for several reasons : 

313* A noun is a name. Of what, then, is 'hers' or 'mine' the 
name ? It is plainly seen the name remains to be supplied. 

314* The substitution of a noun in the possessive case shows the 
pronoun to be in the possessive case ; as, Your book is torn ; mine 
is not. Your book is torn ; Joint's is not. No one can say that 
'John's ' is not in the possessive case, or that ' mine ' does not stand 
in the same relation. 

315* In former times, the forms mine, thine, etc., were always used 
as possessives before vowel sounds ; as, Touch not mine anointed, and 
do my prophets no harm. (Ps. cv. 15.) 

316. Mine is the original form (of which my is an apocopated 
form of more recent date) derived from an ancient genitive, the 
equivalent of our possessive. 

317* That mine, thine, yours, etc., are but strengthened forms used 
for my, thy, your, etc., is seen in the very slight distinction between 
them. For, if own is supplied, the shortened form at once takes the 
place of the longer. That horse is mine. That horse is my own 
[horse]. 'Own' is an adjective and 'my' a pronoun in the possessive 
case, each limiting ' horse ' ; and should not be parsed as one word. 

318. The possessive introductory is sometimes used; as, Its being 
John was the reason why she accepted. 

319. The possessive suggestive occurs; as, I never thought of its 
being ten o'clock. 

320. The possessive expletive is met with frequently; as, Its being 
really true that her father had failed, she declared impossible. 

321. Peculiarities of the Objective case of pronouns. 
H. Oram. — 6. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

322. The objective case of the relative is always placed before 
the verb which governs it ; and frequently before the governing prep- 
osition. For example : These are the boys whom you rewarded ; These 
are the men that you spoke of. 

323. The pronoun it is found in the objective introductory, sug- 
gestive, and expletive ; as, I took it to be John who made these re- 
marks ; He declared it to be ten o'clock when we came home ; We 
thought it necessary for us to go. 

324. Objective by enallage : This is the use of the objective form 
or case, in constructions which, by rule, would require the nomina- 
tive or possessive form or case. 

325. For the nominative subject of a finite verb; as, Me thinks, 
Me seems. 

326. For the nominative absolute; as, Ah me ! Dear me! Here, 
me is used for nominative absolute by exclamation. 

327. For the nominative in the predicate after an intransitive 
verb; as, If I were him; It is me; That's him, etc. This use is 
only warranted in conversational style. 

328. Whom is used for who ; as, Solomon, than whom there never 
was a wiser, declares wisdom more precious than rubies. Expanding 
'whom,' and supplying the ellipses, this sentence reads: Solomon, 
and there never was a wiser [man] than he [was], declares wisdom 
[to be] more precious than rubies [are]. In the above sentence, 
* whom ' is separated into its two elements ; the connective, and, and 
the representative, he. It is thus shown that the regular form of 
whom should be who, and that ' whom ' is objective by enallage, after 
the conjunction than, and not governed by than, as some gramma- 
rians affirm. 

329. The objective form or case is sometimes used for the pos- 
sessive ; as, We had no fear of them being lost ; There is no use of 
him coming so early. * Them ' is in the objective case by enallage 
for their, limiting the participle " being lost." l Him ' is in the ob- 
jective by enallage for his, limiting the participle 'coming.' 

Remark. — For the objective of nouns by enallage, see page 56, 
Art. 246. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 67 

CONSTRUCTIONS OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

330. Nominative Constructions. 

1. Dependent constructions. 

Subject of a finite verb. Rule 15. 
In the predicate with a subject nominative. Rule 14. 
In the predicate with a subject sentence. Rule 14. 
In the predicate with a subject phrase. Rule 14. 
In apposition with another nominative. Rule 13. 
In apposition with an independent sentence. Art. 211. 
In apposition with a subject sentence. Art. 211. 
In apposition with a subject phrase. Art. 211. 
In apposition with a predicate sentence. Art. 211. 
In apposition with a predicate phrase. Art. 211. 
Introductory "it." Art. 302. 
Suggestive "it." Art. 303. 
Expletive "it." Art. 304. 
Euphonic "it." Art. 307. 

In predicate with a participle whose subject is in the 
possessive case. 
Remark. — This construction is in violation of Rule 14, but in 
accordance with Art. 1,247, 

In the predicate with an infinitive whose subject is the 
same as that of the finite verb it limits. Rule 16. 

2. Independent nominative constructions. 
Absolute by direct address. Art. 214. 
Absolute by exclamation. Art. 215. 
Absolute by inscription. Art. 216. 
Absolute by pleonasm. Art. 217. 
Absolute with a participle. Art 218. 

331. Possessive Constructions. 

1. Regular, i. e., according to some rule. 

Limiting another noun or pronoun of different signifi- 
cation. Rule 19. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Limiting another noun or pronoun of similar significa- 
tion. Rule 13. 
Limiting a noun understood. 
Example. — He stopped at Mr. Stewart's last night. Art. 233. 

Limiting a participle as its subject. Art. 224. 
Example.— -John's being there was not disputed. 

In the predicate as an attribute limiting the subject. 
Example. — That book is mine. Rule 19. 

Possessive introductory "it." 
Example. — Its being they was the reason I came. Art. 302. 

Suggestive "it." 
Example. — Its raining so hard detained us. Art. 303. 

Expletive " it.' 7 

Example. — Its being telegraphed that the bridge was carried away, 
prevented a terrible accident. Art. 304. 

2. Irregular, in violation of some rule by the figure of enallage. 

Possessive by enallage used for the objective. 
Example. — That book of yours is returned. Art. 234. 

Possessive by enallage used for the nominative absolute. 
Example. — O my> what a fuss you are making about nothing. 

Possessive sign carried to the end of a limiting prep- 
ositional phrase. 
Examples. — Moses was the daughter of Pharaoh's son ; When the 
king of Babylon's army besieged Jerusalem. 

Possessive sign transferred from noun understood to 
limiting adjective. Art. 1,254. 
Example. — Let each become the other's friend. 

332. Objective Constructions. 
1. Regular constructions. 

Object of an active transitive verb. Rule 17. 

Object of a preposition. Rule 18. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 69 

Subject of an infinitive. Rule 16. 

Objective in the predicate with subject objective. R. 14. 

Objective in the predicate with subject sentence. R. 14. 

Objective in the predicate with subject phrase. R. 14. 

In apposition with another objective. Rule 13. 

In apposition with a subject sentence. Rule 13. 

In apposition with a subject phrase. Rule 13. 

In apposition with an objective sentence. Rule 13. 

In apposition with an objective phrase. Rule 13. 

Introductory " it." 

Example. — Who could have thought it to be Jane and Harvey 
who were coming ? Art. 302. 

Objective suggestive "it." 
Example. — We thought it time to begin. Art. 303. 

Expletive "it." Art. 304. 
Example. — We thought it to be true that the man had expired. 
Apparent object of an intransitive verb of similar sig- 
nification. 
Example. — Let me die the death of the righteous. 

Objective of an intransitive causative verb. 
Example. — He 7'an the horse all the way to town. 

Nouns denoting time, distance, weight, measure, etc., 

object of a preposition understood. 
One of two objects of an active transitive verb, either 
of which may be used as the object; the other with a 
preposition becoming an adverbial phrase. Art. 225. 

Examples. — She taught me grammar. 1. She taught me [in the 
subject of] grammar. 2. She taught [to] me grammar. 

Remark. — Either of these objects may be used as the subject of 
the passive verb. 

2. Irregular constructions ; in violation of some rule by the 
figitre of enallage. 

Objective used for the possessive. 
Example. — I never thought of Mary failing. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

For a nominative subject of a finite verb. 
Example. — Me thinks; Me seems. 

For a nominative absolute by exclamation. 
Example. — Ah me ; Dear me. 

For a nominative in the predicate after an intransitive 
verb in conversational style. 
Example. — It was me ; If I were him. 

Whom used for who after than. 
Example. — Satan, than whom none sat higher, then arose. 

It will be noticed that there are here given fifty-six different rela- 
tions in which nouns and pronouns are found. Now, if case is re- 
lation, there are as many different cases as relations, viz., fifty-six. 
Why do the grammarians who define case as "the relation which 
nouns and pronouns hold to other words," give only three cases? 

EXAMPLES FOR DRILL IN PARSING NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

The words italicized are suggested for exercise in construction 
especially. 

333- And it were highly to be wished that legislative power 
would thus direct the law rather to reformation than severity : that 
it would seem convinced that the work of eradicating crimes is not 
by making punislunents familiar, but formidable. — Goldsmith. 

334 # Their written words we linger o'er, 

But in the sun they cast no shade ! 
No voice is heard, no sign is made, 
No step is on the conscious floor ! — Whittier. 

335. Parse < Whittier.' 

336. Wherefore ye needs must be subject, not only for wrath's, 
but also for conscience' sake. — Rom. xiii. 5. 

337* Day dawns upon the mountain's side ; 
There, Scotland, lay thy bravest pride, 
Chiefs, knights, and nobles, many a one ; 

A 
The sad survivors all are gone. — Scott. 
A 
Remark. — Parse the nouns understood which the adjectives limit. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 71 

338. Him follow'd his next mate, 
Both glorying to have 'scap'd the Stygian flood 
As Gods, and by their own recover'd strength, 
Not by the suff'rance of Supernal Power. — Milton. 

339. O blest retirement, friend to life's decline, 
Retreat from care, that never must be mine ; 
How blest is he who crowns in shades like these, 

A 
A youth of labor with an age of ease. — Goldsmith. 

340. But wherefore let we then our faithful friends, 
Th' associates and copartners of our loss, 

Lie thus astonished on th' oblivious pool. — Milton. 

341. Old friends! The writings of those words has borne 
My fancy backward to the gracious past, 

The generous past, when all was possible, 
For all was then untried. — Lowell. 

342. His spear, to equal which the tallest pine 
Hewn on Norwegian hills, to be the mast 
Of some great ammiral, were but a zvand, 
He walked with to support uneasy steps 
Over the burning marl ; not like those steps 
On Heaven's azure ; and the torrid clime 

Smote on him sore besides, vaulted with fire. — Milton. 

343. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. — Matt. vi. 28. 

344. He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. — 2 Cor. x. 17. 

345- A dungeon horrible on all sides round, 

As one great furnace flamed ; yet from those flames 
No light ; but rather darkness visible 
Served only to discover sights of woe, 
Regions of sorrow, doleful shades, where peace 
And rest can never dwell ; hope never comes, 
That comes to all. — Milton. 

346- What, then, are the proper encouragements of genius ? I 

answer, subsistence and respect, for these are rewards congenial to 

A 
its nature. Every animal has an aliment peculiarly suited to its con- 
stitution. The heavy ox seeks nourishment from earth ; the light 
chameleon has been supposed to exist on air ; a sparer diet even 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

than this will satisfy the man of true genius, for he makes a luxurious 

A 
banquet upon empty applause. It is this alone which has inspired 

A 
all that ever was truly great and noble among us. It is, as Cicero 

A 
finely calls it, the echo of virtue. Avarice is the passion of inferior 

natures ; money, the pay of the common herd. The author who draws 
his quill merely to take a purse, no more deserves success than he 
who presents a pistol. — Goldsmith. 

347. Within our beds a while we heard 
The wind that round the gables roared, 
With now and then a ruder shock, 
Which made our very bedsteads rock. 
We heard the loosened clapboards tossed, 
The board-nails snapping in the frost ; 
And on us, through the unplastered wall, 

Felt the light-sifted snoiuflakes fall. — Whittier. 

348. And while he yet talked with them, behold, the messenger 
came down unto him, and he said, Behold, this evil is of the Lord ; 
ivhat should I wait for the Lord any longer? — 2 Kings vi. 33. 

349. Art divine 
Has made the body tutor to the soul ; 
Heaven kindly gives our blood a moral flow; 
Bids it ascend the glowing cheek, and there 
Upbraid that little heart's inglorious aim, 
Which stoops to court a character from man ; 
While o'er us, in tremendous judgment sit 

Far more than man, with endless praise and blame. — Young. 
A 
350* For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole 
world, and lose his own soul ? — Mark viii. 37. 

351. Me thou thinkest not slow, 

Who since the morning-hour set out from heav'n, 

Where God resides, and ere mid-day arrived 

In Eden, .... What if that light, 

Sent from her through the wide transpicuous air 

To the terrestrial moon, be as a star 

Enlightening her by day, as she by night 

This earth ? reciprocal, if land be there, 

A 
Field and inhabitants. — Milton. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 73 

35 2 - Was it then too much 

For me to trespass on the brutal rights? — Young. 

353- He comes with a careless il JIow d'ye do?" 

And seats himself in my elbow-chair : 
And my morning paper and pamphlet new 

Fall forthwith under his special care, 
And he wipes his glasses and clears his throat, 
And, button by button, unfolds his coat. — Whittier. 

354- Me miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath and infinite despair? — Milton. 

355- Ah, me, they little know 
How dearly I abide that boast so vain, 
Under what torments inwardly I groan, 

While they adore me on the throne of Hell ! — Id* 

356* All hope excluded thus, behold, instead 
Of us outcast, exiled, his new delight, 
Mankind created, and for him this world. — Id. 

357* An a ngel, if a creature of a day, 

What would he be? a trifle of no weight; 
Or stand or fall; no matter which; he's gone. — Young 
A 

358. Who would not give a trifle to prevent, 

What he would give a thousand worlds to cure? — Id. 

359- It is not always easy to make one's self just what one wishes 



to be. 

360. What, then, is unbelief? 'Tis an exploit; 
A strenuous enterprise ; to gain it, man 

Must burst through every bar of common sense, 
Of common shame, magnanimously wrong. 
And what rewards the sturdy combatant? 
His prize, repentance ; infamy, his crown. — YOUNG. 

361. 'Chieftains, forego! 
I hold him first who strikes, my foe. 
Madman, forbear your frantic jar! 
What! is the Douglas fallen so far, 

His daughter's hand is deemed the spoil 
Of such dishonorable broil ! ' — Scott. 

H. Gram. — 7. 



A 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

362. In proud disdain of what e'en gods adore, 

Dost smile? Poor wretch! thy guardian angel weeps. 

— Young. 

363. We nothing know, but what is marvelous; 
Yet what is marvelous, we can 't believe. 
So weak our reason, and so great our God. 
What most surprises in the sacred page, 

Or full as strange, or stranger, must be true. — Id. 

364. Thy false uncle being once perfected how to grant suits, 
How to deny them ; whoi?i t' advance, and whom 

To trash for overtopping ; new created 

The creatures that were mine, I say, or chang'd them, 

Or else new form'd them : having both the key 

Of officer and office, set all hearts i' the state 

To what tune pleased his ear ; that now he was 

The ivy, which had hid my princely trunk, 

And suck'd my verdure out on V. — Shakespeare. 

365. Dryden, though a great and undisputed genius, had the same 

cast as L' Estrange. Even his plays discover him to be a party-man, 

and the same principle infects his style in subjects of the lightest 

nature ; but the English tongue, as it stands at present, is greatly 

his debtor. He first gave it regular harmony, and discovered its 

latent powers. It was his pen that formed the Congreves, the Priors, 

and the Addisons, who succeeded him ; and had it not been for 

Dryden, we never should have known a Pope, at least in the me- 

A 
ridian luster he now displays. But Dryden's excellencies as a writer 

A 
were not confined to poetry alone. There is in his prose writings an 

ease and elegance that have never yet been so well united in works 

of taste or criticism. — Goldsmith. 

366. What ne'er can die, Oh! grant to live; and crown 
The wish, and aim, and labor of the skies; 
Increase, and enter on the joys of heaven. — Young. 

367. Life to the last, like hardened felons, lies; 

Nor owns itself a cheat, till it expires. 

Its little joys go out by one and one, 

A A 

And leave poor man, at length, in perfect night; 

Night darker than what now involves the pole. — Id. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 75 

368. But thou, lorn stream, whose sullen tide 
No sedge-crown'd sisters now attend, 
Now waft me from the green hill's side, 

Whose cold turf hides the buried friend. — COLLINS. 

369. * Up drawbridge, grooms — what, Warder, ho ! 
Let the portcullis fall.' — Scott. 

370. That man greatly lives, 

Whatever his fate or fame, who greatly dies. — Young. 

37 *• The truth, through such a medium seen, may make 
Impression deep, and fondness prove thy friend. — Id, 

372. What if the sun 

Be center to the world, and other stars, 

By his attractive virtue and their own 

A 
Incited, dance about him various rounds? — Milton. 

373- And what she did, whatever in itself, 

Her doing seemed to justify the deed. — Id. 

374- Let it be understood that I will pursue this course no longer. 

375* Which when Beelzebub perceived, than whom, 
Satan except, none higher sat, with grave 
Aspect he rose, and in his rising seem'd 
A pillar of state: deep on his front engraven 
Deliberation sat, and public care. — Id. 

376. I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her. — Fowler. 

377- Whom the shoe fits, let him put it on. 

378. Whatever doing, what can we suffer more, 
What can we suffer worse? — Milton. 

379- Me, through just right, and the fix'd laws of Heav'n, 
Did first create your leader, next free choice, 
With what besides, in council or in fight, 
Hath been achieved of merit ; yet this loss, 

Thus far at least recover'd, hath much more 
A A 

Establish'd in a safe unenvied throne, 

' . A 
Yielded with full consent. — Id. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

380. Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something, nothing; 

^Twas mine, "'tis his, and has been slave to thousands; 

But he that filches from me my good name, 

Robs me of that which not enriches him, 

A 
And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare. 

381. Darken'd so, yet shone 
Above them all the Archangel : but his face 

A 
Deep scars of thunder had intrench'd, and care 

Sat on his faded cheek ; but under brows 

Of dauntless courage, and considerate pride 

Waiting revenge ; cruel his eye, but cast 

A 
Signs of remorse and passion, to behold 

The fellows of his crime, the followers rather 
(Far other once beheld in bliss), condemned 

.A 
Forever now to have their lot in pain. — Milton. 

382. They heard, and were abash' d, and up they sprung 
Upon the wing, as when men went to watch 

On duty, sleeping found by whom they dread, 

Rouse and bestir themselves ere well awake. 

Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 

In which they were, or the fierce pains not feel. — Id. 

383. Say, Muse, their names then known, who first, who last 
Roused from the slumber, on that fiery couch, 

At their great emp'ror's call, as next in worth 
Came singly where he stood on that bare strand, 
While the promiscuous crowd stood still aloof. — Id. 

384. That hat is only worth a dollar. 

385. He had more money than he knew what to do with. 

386. Knowing that whatsoever good thing any man doeth, the 
same shall he receive of the Lord, whether he be bond or free. — 

A 
Eph. vi. 8. 

387^ 'I have nourished a viper in my bosom.' 

'A viper — a fiddlestick ,' said Miss Sharp to the old lady. 

* I will do nothing here but 
what I am obliged to do.' ...... 









■ 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 77 

' you droll creature ! Do let me hear you sing it.' 
* Me ? No, you, Miss Sharp ; my dear Miss Sharp, do sing it.' 

Thackeray. 

388. < ^7z#/ a beautiful, byoo-ootiful song that was you sang last 
night, dear Miss Sharp. It made //** cry, almost. — Id. ^ 

389. And Zedekiah, King of Judah, and his princes, will I give 
into the hand of their enemies, and into the hand of them that seek 
their life, and into the hand of the king of Babylon's army, which 
are gone up from you. — Jer. xxxiv. 21. 

39°* Moses was the son of Pharaoh's daughter. 

391. Burns' centenary dinner occurred on the same day as my 
birthday, 

39 2 - After hearing my story, and pausing some minutes, he slapped 
his forehead as if he had hit upon something material, and took his 
leave, saying he would try what could be done. — Goldsmith. 

393- Who speaks the truth stabs Falsehood to the heart, 
And his mere word makes despots tremble more 
Than ever Brutus with his dagger could. — Lowell. 

394* Among them one, an ancient willow, spreads 

Eight balanced limbs, springing at once all round 

His deep-ridged trunk with upward slant diverse, 

In outline like enormous beaker, fit 

For hand of Jotun, where 'mid snow and mist 

He holds unwieldly revel. This tree, spared, 

I know not by what grace — for in the blood 

Of our New World subduers lingers yet 

Hereditary feud with trees, they being 

{They and the red man most) our fathers' foes — 

Is one of six, a willow Pleiades, 

A 
The seventh fallen, that lean along the brink 

Where the steep upland dips into the marsh, 
Their roots, like molten metal cooled in flowing, 
Stiffened in coils and runnels down the bank. — Id. 

395. All think it a miracle that he was not killed. 

396* A prompt, decisive man, no breath 
Our father wasted : i Boys, a path ! ' 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Well pleased, (for when did farmer boy 
Count such a summons less than joy ?) 

A 
Our buskins on our feet we drew; 

With mittened hands, and caps drawn low, 
To guard our necks and ears from snow, 
We cut the solid zuhiteness through. — Whittier. 

397. They trespass, authors to themselves in all , 

A 
Both what they judge and what they choose. — Milton. 

398. As one who held herself a part 

A 
Of all she saw, and let her heart 

Against the household bosom lean, 
Upon the motley-braided mat 
Our youngest and our dearest sat, 
Lifting her large, sweet, asking eyes, 

Now bathed within the fadeless green 
And holy peace of Paradise. — Whittier. 

399. Yet not for those, 
Nor what the potent victor in his rage 

Can else inflict, do I repent or change, 

Though changed in outward luster, that fix'd mind 

And high disdain from sense of injured merit, 

That with the Mightiest raised me to contend, 

And to the fierce contention brought along 

Innumerable force of Spirits arm'd, 

That durst dislike his reign, and me preferring, 

His utmost powW with adverse pow'r opposed 

In dubious battle on the plains of Heav'n, 

And shook his throne. — Milton. 

400. Belial came last, than whom a spirit more lewd 
Fell not from heaven, or more gross to love 
Vice for itself. — Id. 

401. And now his heart 
Distends with pride, and hardening in his strength, 
Glories; for never since created 7nan 

Met such embodied force, as, named with these, 
Could merit more than that small infantry 
Warred on by cranes. — Id. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PRONOUN. 79 

402. What matter where, if I be still the same, 
And what I should be, all but less than he 
Whom thunder hath made greater? — Id, 

403* Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, — 

To teach the young idea how to shoot. — Thomson. 

404- What you say you said is not what he said you said. 

405. John declares it to be impossible for him to tell what words 
are double relatives and what are interrogative pronominal adjectives. 

406. He asked, "What will the next lesson be?" 

407. He asked what would be the next lesson. 

408. I heard what he said. 

409. I learned what the difficulty was immediately. 

410. I know who broke the window. 

411. He told me of whom I could get the morning paper. 

412. Who can tell what he will do next? 
413* Bring what materials you have. 

414* I know who was the first President of the United States. 

415. Whatsoever way he turns, he is sure to be wrong. 

416. Whatever he says, you attend to my directions. 

417* Rock of ages, cleft for me, 

Let me hide myself in thee ; 

Let the water and the blood, 

From thy wounded side which flow'd, 

Be of sin the double cure, 

Save from wrath and make me pure. — Toplady. 

418. I care not what course others may take, as for me, give me 
liberty, or give me death. — Henry. 

419* I don't know who he is, do you? 

420. Do not let them know who I am. 

421. Whatever it is, it is not such as I can dispose of soon, I fear. 

A 

422. What men are afraid to do openly, they often make their 
boast of as having done secretly. 



8o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

423. Stigmatize as laziness in worship what really is such, and 
don't call it formality any more. 

424. He told me what I never heard of before. 

425. It was such a discourse as I never listened to before. 

426. We can hardly estimate what loss and disgrace such a deed 
as the one I am speaking of must prove to be, to as many as are 
even thought of as the perpetrators of it. 

427. My teacher may rightfully claim to have made me whatever 
I may honestly judge myself to have become; and I thankfully ac- 
knowledge myself to be made as much of as such ??iateriais as I con- 
sist of can be. 

428. "On my part," says the teacher, "I only claim him to be 
what he made himself under such training and skill as I was master 
of, and with such talents as I knew he was in possession of when I 
first took him as a pupil." 



THE ADJECTIVE— INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 

429. Correction of Sentences in False Syntax. 

Attention to the parsing lesson assigned. Mutual criticism by the pupils, 
after having exchanged exercise-books. 

430. Preliminary Drill. — Teacher, "Pupils, I wish to in- 
troduce to you another class of words, or, as the grammarians would 
say, part of speech. An adjective is a word which limits the mean- 
ing of- a noun or pronoun. For example : A sweet apple, A good 
boy, A tall tree, They are studious. 'Sweet,' 'good,' 'tall,' are ad- 
jectives, qualifying the nouns before which they are placed, and 
limiting their signification. There are three classes of adjectives: 
Descriptive, numeral, pronominal. To-day we will take only the first 
two. Now, pupils, if I should say 'That is white sugar,' what qual- 
ity do I ascribe to the sugar? John." 

John. "Whiteness." 

Teacher. "The name of the quality is a noun, but 'white' is 
what? Julia." 



ETYMOLOGY— THE ADJECTIVE. 8 1 

Julia. "An adjective." 

Teacher. " Right. Descriptive adjectives ascribe some quality or 
situation to the nouns they limit. Charles, you may point out the 
adjective in the sentence * There is a tall tree,' and tell to what class 
it belongs." 

Charles. "'Tall' is an adjective, descriptive." 

Teacher. "Mary, why an adjective?" 

Mary. "Because it limits the noun 'tree. ,n 

Teac/ier. "Why descriptive? James." 
James. "Because it describes the tree." 

Teacher. "Take this: * That is a distant farm.' Sarah, what part 
of speech is * distant ' ? " 

Sarah. "An adjective." 

Teacher. "What kind of an adjective? Charles." 

Charles. ' ' Descriptive. ' ' 

Teacher. "Yes. You will notice this is descriptive, because it 
denotes the situation of the farm. Julia, what is ' near ■ in the sen- 
tence 'He is a near neighbor'?" 
Julia. "A descriptive adjective." 

Teacher. "Why? Jane." 
Jane. "It denotes situation." 

Teacher. "Right. Numeral adjectives are such as denote a def- 
inite number ; as, one, two, first, second, etc I will give you some 
sentences and ask you to point out the adjectives, and give the class 
of each." 

i. We have a white cat and a black dog. 

2. The dark clouds poured down rain. 

3. The wild animals which you saw have killed their keeper. 

4. Our Jirst parents inhabited the western portion of the 
Asiatic continent. 

5. The warm sun brings, out the green grass and ripens 
the growing grain. 

6. Jane's little canary bird, which her father bought, sings 
a beautiful song. 

7. Five years have passed : time tells a wonderful story. 

8. The old man uses the walking stick which I found. 

9. This book is interesting. 
10. My time is valuable. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Teacher. " Susan, you may name the adjectives in the first sen- 
tence." 

Susan. '" White' and 'black.'" 

Teacher. "Why adjectives? Henry." 

Henry. "Because they limit the nouns 'cat' and 'dog.'" 

Teacher. "In the fifth sentence, what are the adjectives? Jane." 
Jane. "'Warm,' 'green,' 'growing.'" 

Teacher. "What kind of adjectives are these? John." 
John. "Descriptive." 

Teacher. "Why? Julia." 

Julia. " Because they describe the nouns by ascribing some quality 
to them." 

Teacher. "What kind of adjective is the first one in the seventh 
sentence? Charles." 

Charles. ' ' Numeral. ' ' 

Teacher. " Why? Sarah. " 

Sarah. " Because it denotes a definite number." 

Teacher. " I will now parse some adjectives and give you the 
Rule. Take 'white,' in the first sentence. White is an adjective, 
descriptive, limits the noun 'cat,' Rule I. Articles and adjectives 
limit nouns. I will also parse 'growing,' in the fifth sentence. Grow- 
ing'^ an adjective, descriptive, limits the noun 'grain,' Rule I. Mary, 
you may rise and parse 'dark,' in the second sentence." 

Mary. "Dark is an adjective, descriptive, limits the noun 'clouds,' 
Rule i." 

Teacher. "Very good. Now, James, you may parse 'walking,' 
in the eighth sentence." 

James. "Walking is an adjective, descriptive, limits the noun 
'stick,' Rule I." 

Teacher. ii Very well, James. If you all have followed me closely, 
I think you will have no difficulty in parsing the words I have ital- 
icized in the preceding sentences, for the next recitation. In addition 
to the adjectives, I will ask you to parse some nouns, pronouns, and 
articles, so that you may not forget what you have learned in pre- 
vious lessons." 

The teacher will hereafter ask the pupils to mark such words as he may 
designate in their grammars for parsing, and as will best meet the wants of 
the class, in reference to the preliminary drill given each day ; bearing in 
mind that occasional examples must be assigned in previous work, lest any 
principle or point gained shall be lost or forgotten. 



ETYMOLOGY— PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 83 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

431. Recitation — Classes of Adjectives. 

Written parsings criticised by the teacher out of school hours perhaps ; 
and graded in any point in which the particular pupil most needs encourage- 
ment. 

432. Preliminary Drill. — Teacher. " In the sentence * This 
is an old book,' what does 'this' stand for? All together." 

Class. "Book." 

Teacher. "What part of speech is it, then? Mary." 

Mary. "A pronoun." 

Teacher. "But wait a little, Mary; what does * this ' relate to?" 

Mary. "The noun 'book.'" 

Teacher. " Who will read the sentence so as to show this rela- 
tion ? James, will you?" 

James. "This book is an old book." 

TeacJier. "Yes; but it sounds best to omit * book ' in the first 
part of the sentence. Now, since 'this' relates to the noun 'book,' 
what part of speech is it? Mary." 

Mary. "An adjective." 

Teacher. " Right. 'That slate is broken.' What is the construc- 
tion of 'that'? Susan." 

Susan. "An adjective relating to 'slate.' 

TeacJier. "Class, what quality does it give to the noun?" 

No hands up. 

TeacJier. "It gives no quality or situation, therefore it is not a 
descriptive adjective. Since it limits 'slate,' or distinguishes it as a 
particular slate, it is sometimes called a definitive, or limiting, or 
specifying adjective. But, as you have seen, it frequently stands for 
the noun, so we will call it a pronoun-adjective, or a pronominal 
adjective, according to the grammars. I will give you a list of the 
pronominal adjectives, that you may have them for future reference. 

For this list of pronominal adjectives, see page 88. 

Teacher. " I will give you some sentences containing this kind 
of adjectives." 

i. Such as I have, give I unto thee. 

2. These are the same that you saw yesterday. 

3. WJiich will you do ? I will do neither. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. Here come James and John ; each has a new hat. 

5. All who study diligently will learn. 

6. The true teacher will do much for the slowest and little 
for the quickest. 

7. Some have gone, others remain. 

8. Only one escaped from the burning boat. 

9. Few attended the convention, but enough were present 
to transact the business. 

10. Several persons were present. 

11. None ever returned. 

12. He wants only his own. 

13. The more he gets, the more he wants. 

14. No one saw him do it. 

15. The old are cautious, the young are venturesome. 

16. Mindful of the unhonored dead, Gray wrote his 
Elegy. 

17. The prompt and regular are here; the careless and 
uncertain are absent. 

18. The true friend will sometimes be considered unkind; 
the false will always flatter and fawn. 

19. The new and the untried captivate the unwary; the 
old and approved better satisfy the prudent. 

Teacher. " Class, you will see that the pronominal adjectives in 
these sentences stand for their nouns, without the article ; hence the 
definition, A pronominal adjective is one which may, without an article, 
represent a noun. I will parse 'such,' in the first sentence. Such is 
an adjective, pronominal, limits the noun things, understood. Rule 1. 
Henry, you may parse 'these,' in the second sentence." 

Henry. "These is an adjective, pronominal, limits the noun per- 
sons, understood. Rule 1." 

Teacher. "Very good. I will parse 'as,' in the first sentence. 
As is a pronoun, relative, agrees with its antecedent, things, under- 
stood, in the third, plural, neuter, Rule 5, objective case, object of 
the verb 'have.' Rule 17. I think you are now prepared for the 
next recitation. You may parse, in writing, the pronominal adjectives 
and other words which are italicized in the preceding sentences." 



ETYMOLOGY— INTERROGATIVE PRONOMINALS. 85 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOMINALS. 

434. Recitation — Written Parsings. 

435. Preliminary Drill. — Teacher. " Pupils, you noticed 
that the words ' which ' and * what ' occur in the list of pronominal 
adjectives. I wish now to show you how to determine when to call 
them pronouns, and when interrogative pronominal adjectives. Take 
the sentence ' What tree is that ? ' Mary, you may point out the 
noun." 

Mary. "Tree." 

Teacher. "What limits it? James." 

James. " « What ' and ■ that.' " 

Teacher. "Very good. What kind of words are these? Susan." 

Susan. "Pronominal adjectives." 

Teacher. "Right. And since 'what' is used in asking a question, 
it is an interrogative. You will have no difficulty with ' which ' and 
'what' in such examples as these": — 



i. Which house is it? 

2. Which woman was it? 

3. What man is it? 

"But what do you say about 'which' in these sentences?" 

4. Which is the house? 

5. Which of you convinceth me of sin? 

"To what word does 'which,' in the fourth sentence, refer? Henry." 

Henry. " House." 

Teacher. "Right. Notice, now, pupils, that 'which' stands be- 
fore the noun, either expressed or understood, to which it refers, and 
in this position is a pronominal adjective. In the following sentences, 
' which ' comes after the noun to which it refers, and in this position 
is a relative pronoun." 

6. Where are the birds which you killed yesterday? 

7. The clouds which threatened rain have disappeared. 

8. The study which I bestow on grammar is nothing 
but fun. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. I like to do anything which will improve my mind. 
10. The boots which uncle gave me I gave my brother. 

Teacher. "Now, pupils, when is * which ' a relative pronoun? 
Jane." 

Jane. "When it comes after the noun to which it relates." 

Teacher. "Very good. John, when is * which ' an interrogative 
pronominal adjective ? " 

John. "When it comes before the noun to which it refers." 

Teacher. "Very well. I am glad to see you taking hold of gram- 
mar so readily. Your next lesson will be the parsing, in writing, of 
such words as I marked in the ten sentences of this lesson. First, 
I will parse * which,' in the sixth sentence. Which is an adjective, 
pronominal, interrogative, limits the noun l person,' understood. Rule 
1. Julia, I would like to have you parse * which,' in the second sen- 
tence." 

Julia. "Which is an adjective, pronominal, interrogative, limits 
the noun * woman.' Rule 1." 

Teacher. "Who will parse ' which,' in the sixth sentence?" 

All hands up. 

Teacher. * ' Charles. ' ' 

Charles. "Which is a pronoun, relative, agrees with its antecedent, 
'birds,' in the third, plural, common, Rule 5, objective case, object 
of the transitive verb ' killed.' Rule 17." 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

436. Definition. — An adjective is a word limiting a noun 
or pronoun ; as, The beautiful flower ; He is wealthy. 

Remark. — To say that "An adjective describes a noun," is un- 
doubtedly erroneous; but to say that "An adjective limits a noun," 
is but an abbreviated form for this: "The quality or specification 
expressed by an adjective is designed to limit the meaning of the 
noun or pronoun to which it relates, or more philosophically (?) still, 
to describe or specify the object or objects which the noun (or the 
pronoun representing it,) may present to the consciousness of the 
speaker and hearer, or of the writer and reader." 



ETYMOLOGY— THE ADJECTIVE. 87 

437* An adjective in the predicate may limit any phrase or sen- 
tence used as a subject of an intransitive or passive verb ; as, To be 
detained so long at a railway station is very unnecessary and vexatious ; 
That he should leave so suddenly seems very strange ; That he is con- 
sidered honest is indeed very fortunate for him. 

438. Adjectives are sometimes compounded ; as, That is a beau- 
tiful light-green color. 

439. Other parts of speech are frequently used as adjectives. 

44°* Nouns ; as, The iron bridge is completed ; We write with 
gold pens. 

44 *• Pronouns; as, I care not what course others may take. 

44 2 - Adverbs ; as, He is the very man ; We have enough men ; He 
left five years ago. 

443. Prepositions; as, He plunged into the waters below; The 
under current does the mischief; He died five years since. 

444. Adjectives sometimes seem to be used as other parts of speech. 

445* For nouns; as, The wicked shall perish; but the good shall 
live. 

44^ • I n the above example, as well as in all other similar oties, 
the noun is understood, and the adjective must be parsed as limit- 
ing it. 

447* There is one case in which an adjective becomes a noun: 
She robbed me of my hopes, my heart, my all. In this use of 'all,* 
it is a noun. 

448. One is sometimes said to be a noun, but is never so used. 
In the following example, ' ones ' is called by some grammarians a 
noun : There are many whose waking thoughts are wholly employed 
on their sleeping ones. Plainly, ' ones ' limits thoughts, understood, 
which it here represents in the character of a pronominal adjective, 
the plural sign being transferred from the noun to the adjective. 

449. Words commonly used as adjectives, sometimes become ad- 
verbs ; sometimes, also, prepositions ; as, like and worth. 

450. Classes. — Descriptive, Pronominal, Numeral. 

451. A descriptive adjective is one that signifies quality 
or situation. 



ss 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



45^- Some are derived from proper names; hence, are called by- 
some grammarians, Proper adjectives; as, American, Grecian, etc. 

453- Some are derived from verbs, and are called participial or 
verbal adjectives; as, a telling speech; a pressing emergency; a pre- 
dicted change ; a much to be wished for consummation. 

454- A participial adjective is distinguished from a participle by 
being placed immediately before the noun which it limits; it then 
rejects the idea of time, and retains only that of quality. 

455- A pronominal adjective is one which may, without 
an article, represent a noun, including every and no, which 
are pronominals used with one. 

456. These adjectives limit their nouns in any other re- 
spect than quality or situation. 

457. A List of Pronominals. 

enough, 
few, 
little, 
less, 
least, 
much, 
many, 
and the interrogative pronominals, which and what. 

458. A numeral adjective is one which denotes a definite 
number. 

459- Those which denote how many are called cardinals; as, five, 
eight, a hundred, a million. 

460. Those which denote a definite place in a series, or a definite 
part of a unit, are called ordinals ; as, fourth, tenth, twenty-second. 

461. Some of the pronominals are indefinite numerals, but should 
not be parsed as such ; as, certain, either, few, many, several. 

462. Numeral adjectives are frequently used as nouns ; as, They 
came by hundreds and thousands ; I did not see a tenth of the persons. 

463. Modifications. — Number — Comparison. 

464. Number is applied to the adjectives this and that, 



this, 


either, 


that, 


neither, 


these, 


all, 


those, 


any, 


both, 


certain, 


each, 


divers, 


every, 


else, 



more, 


other, 


most, 


others, 


no, 


own, 


none, 


several, 


one, 


some, 


ones, 


such, 


only, 





ETYMOLOGY— THE ADJECTIVE. 89 

which have the plurals these and those. One has its plurals, 
ones, few, several, many ; each has its plural, all. 

465. The English language, unlike most others, does not inflect 
its adjectives to denote pe?son, number, and gender. 

466. Adjectives are compared to signify different relative 
degrees, increase or diminution, in quality or relation. 

467- There are three degrees of comparison: 

468. The positive, — the simple form of the adjective ; as, sweet, hot. 

469. The comparative, used in comparing two objects which differ 
in degree ; as, James is taller than John ; This apple is sweeter than 
that ; To-day is hotter than yesterday. 

47°« The superlative, used to express the highest degree when 
more than two objects are compared; as, James is the tallest one of 
the company; My apple is the sweetest of the three; This seems to 
be the hottest day of the season. 

47 *• Usage, however, the grammarians to the contrary notwith- 
standing, warrants the superlative in such expressions as, He is the 
tallest of the two ; Which is the tcillest, James or John ? 

47 2 - Some name a fourth degree below the positive, and called 
diminutive ; as, bluish, brackish, and other words ending in ish. 

473* Comparison is regular or irregular, or by adverbs. 

474* Regular comparison is made by adding to the positive, er for 
the comparative, and est for the superlative. For example : 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


soft, 


softer, 


softatf. 


mild, 


milder, 


mild^/. 


wise, 


wis^r, 


wisest. 



475- Monosyllables, and dissyllables accented on the first syllable, 
are compared in the regular way ; as, yellow, yellower, yellowest; 
worthy, worthier, worthiest ; crooked, crookeder, crookedest, etc. 

476* But participial adjectives, and adjectives derived from nouns, 
are compared by means of adverbs; as, mixed, more mixed, etc., 
golden, etc. 

H. Gram.— 8. 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

477' Irregular comparison : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

good, better, best, 

bad, evil or ill, worse, worst, 

little, less, lesser, least, 

much or many, more, most. 

47^. Some adjectives thus compared are redundant ; 

479- Having more than one superlative ; as, fore, fowier, foremost 
or first ; hind, hinder, hinder most or hindmost ; near, nearer, nearest or 
next, etc. 

480. Some are defective ; 

481. In the positive; as, nether, nethermost; under, undermost, etc. 

482. In the comparative; as, end, endmost ; eastern, easternmost; 
front, frontmost ; southern, southernmost, etc. 

483. Comparison by use of the adverbs more and most, and less 
and least. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful, 

beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. 

484. Adjectives of two or more syllables are usually compared by 
using these adverbs. 

485* Some adjectives are compared both regularly and by adverbs ; 
as, worthy, worthier, and worthiest ; worthy, MORE worthy, most worthy. 

486. These adverbs, though used in comparing the adjective, are 
parsed as adverbs, limiting the adjective, and not as a part of the 
adjective. 

487- Compounds, numerals, and proper adjectives can not be com- 
pared. 

488. It is hypercritically affirmed by most grammarians that such 
adjectives as round, straight, perfect, and complete, do not admit of 
comparison. All usage, however, is against them. It is obvious to 
any one but a grammarian that ' more perfect? 'more complete,' etc., 
are abbreviated expressions for "more nearly perfect," "more nearly 
complete," etc. 

489. Peculiarities of construction. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE ADJECTIVE. 91 

490- This 7 and its plural, these, always refer to an object or ob- 
jects near at hand ; while that, and its plural, those, refer to a more 
distant object or objects : The hat and shawl have recently changed 
places ; this being worn by men ; that by women. This, as in the 
preceding example, always refers to the thing last mentioned. 

491. An adjective is sometimes used by enallage in poetry for an 
adverb ; as, 

Some, sailing down the stream, 
Are snatched immediate by the quick-eyed trout. — Thomson. 

49 2 - These two forms of expression, the first two, and the two first, 
also the last three and the three last, are warranted by sufficient use. 

493- One, each, else, and other are never nouns, as some gram- 
marians have taught. Their construction is sometimes peculiar and 
obscure, but, when not expressed, a noun is always understood after 
them. When these words seem to stand in the possessive case, they 
have only taken the sign of the noun which is to be supplied in 
parsing. For example : Be ye one another's joy. The ellipses being 
supplied, this sentence reads thus : Be ye one [person] another [per- 
son's joy. The construction is obvious; * one ' limits * person,' and 
* person ' is in apposition with 'ye.' * Another' limits 'person's,' and 
1 person's,' as a possessive, limits 'joy'; 'joy' is the predicate with 
the intransitive verb, 'be.' Take another example: He declared them 
to be each other's worst enemies ; that is, He declared them, each 
[person] to be [the] other [person]'s worst enemies. Again : Love 
one another ; that is, [You] one [person] love another [person]. 

These pronominal adjectives each other and one another, as used 
above, may be called reciprocal pronominal adjectives. There are 
reflexive pronouns, but no reciprocal pronouns. 

That is my book and nobody else's. In this, ' else's ' is a pronom- 
inal adjective limiting 'body,' and takes the possessive sign because 
standing nearest the noun, which is limited by the possessive. ' No- 
body ' is the possessive noun limiting book, understood. 

494* The pronominal one with its plural ones, in most cases, rather 
seems a pronoun than an adjective. With pronominals, the limited 
noun can be supplied without marring the sense ; not so with the 
word one; for example: Some one has said, etc.; Select all the fair 
ones. In this very common use of 'one' and 'ones,' we can not supply 
the nouns represented by them without displacing 'one' and 'ones.' 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the example, Let others say what they please, etc., we can supply 
the noun persons, by transferring the plural sign from * others ' to the 
noun supplied, but not so with 'ones.' Following the general usage 
of grammarians, I have nevertheless classed one and ones among pro- 
nominal adjectives. 

495- The expressions, many a, such a, etc., are parsed as one word, 
and limit singular nouns, though the adjectives, when used alone, 
limit plurals ; as, many a man, such a person. 

Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 

The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear ; 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 



THE ARTICLE. 



496. Definition. — An article is a word used with a noun 
to limit or extend its signification; to distinguish the partic- 
ular from the general. 

497- When the article is not used, the expression is general; as, 
Man is mortal • that is, the race, — all mankind. But the expression 
becomes particular when the article is used ; as, The man, or a man, 
is mortal ; meaning a particular man : again, the limits or restricts 
the signification to a single man, while a or an extends the appli- 
cation to any man. 

498. Classes. — Definite and Indefinite. 

499. The definite article is the; which distinguishes, in 
the particular, the definite from the indefinite. 

500. The generally indicates that its noun is modified in some 
way, although the itself can hardly be said to have any modifying 
power. 

501. The is derived from that, but is not so definite. 

502. The indefinite article is a or an; which refers to 
the particular indefinitely. 



ETYMOLOGY— VERB— PERSON— NUMBER. 93 

503. A and an are the same, the form being, originally, an only; 
but the n has been dropped before words beginning with a conso- 
nant sound. 

504. The indefinite article is derived from the Latin units or 
French un, but is more indefinite than our word one. A man is 
not so definite as one man. 

505. Some words beginning with a vowel nevertheless begin with 
a consonant sound ; these take a rather than an; as, A use, a unit, 
a one, etc. ; having the consonant sound of y and w. 

506. A is frequently a contraction for the prepositions at, in, on, 
to; as, He went a fishing; They have gone a boating, etc. 

507. Constructions. 

508. The articles can not be used alone, but always in connec- 
tion with a noun, or an adjective having a noun understood which 
the article limits. 

509. Articles sometimes logically limit a phrase; as, The dry 
season bids fair to include the remaining weeks of summer ; however, 
grammatically, '//*<?' limits only k weeks. "> 

510. The is used as an intensive adverb in such expressions as, 
TJie faster he runs the slower he goes. The is frequently thus used 
with adverbs of the comparative degree ; as, The more openly it is 
done, the better. 



VERB— PERSON— NUMBER. 

511. Recitation of Written Parsing Lesson. 

512. Person and Number. — Teacher. "Pupils, how many 
remember the definition of a verb ? " 

All hands up. 

Teacher. "Mary, you may give it." 

Mary. "A verb is a word that signifies action, being, or state 
of being." 

Teacher. " Right. We begin, now, a systematic study of the 
verb, taking its modifications in order. You will learn, first, about 
person and number as applied to verbs. If you saw Jane very in- 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tently poring over her grammar lesson, would you say to me 'Jane 
study her grammar lesson'? All together." 

Class. "Jane studies her grammar lesson." 

Teacher. "Is it proper to say, 'The boys reads'? Mary." 

Mary. "The boys read." 

Teacher. "You are right. You see, class, that between the verb 
and its subject there is a close relation, which determines the form 
in which the verb must be written." 

i. The boy runs ; The boys run. 

2. This bird flies alone ; Those birds fly in company. 

3. James has a new grammar, but we have our old ones. 

Teacher. "In what number is the noun 'boy,' in the first sen- 
tence ? James." 

James. "Singular." 

Teacher. "Right. So the verb, of which 'boy' is the subject, 
is said to be in the singular number. If the subject is in the plural 
number, the verb must be in the plural. In what number is the 
verb 'run,' in the first sentence? Jane." 
Jane. "Plural." 

Teacher. "Very good. You will observe that the verb generally 
drops the ' s ' in forming the plural, but some verbs have a plural 
differing otherwise from the singular. For example, in the -third 
sentence. Class, in what number is the verb, 'has'? All together." 

Class. "Singular." 

Teacher. "Why?" 

Class. "Because its subject, 'James,' is in the singular." 

Teacher. "In what number is the verb 'have,' in the same sen- 
tence? Henry." 

Henry. "Plural." 

Teacher. "Why? Susan." 

Susan. "Because its subject, 'we,' is in the plural." 

Teacher. "Would you say, 'He study,' or 'He studies'?" 

Class. ''He studies." 

Teacher. "'I studies,' or 'I study'?" 

Class. " I study." 

Teacher. "In what person is 'I'?" 

Class. " First person." 

Teacher. "In what person is 'he'?" 

Class. "Third person." 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB-TENSE. 95 

Teacher. "You see that the person of the subject also affects the 
form of the verb. I will refer you, now, to Rule 9, page 182: 'A 
finite verb must agree with its subject in person and number.' You 
may give the person and number of the verbs in the following sen- 
tences." 

4. I remember when you visited us we had just built our 
new house. 

5. One who possesses contentment is far richer than the 
Rothschilds. 

6. The polar star guides the sailor on the deep. 

7. We will avoid all altercation. 

8. Tornadoes prostrate forests and destroy villages. 

9. Idleness leads to crime. 



TENSE. 

513* Teacher. "Pupils, I wish you to learn one thing more, to- 
day, in reference to the verb. We find that there are three kinds 
of time : the past, the present, the future. Each kind of time has 
two tenses, as given in this outline. 

r, . .. (Present tense, D ... (Past tense, 

Present time. \ ' Past time. \ ' 

{^Present perfect tense. \Past perfect tense. 

r , .. (Future tense, 
Future time. J ' 

{^Future perfect tense. 

" Since all acts are performed in one of these kinds of time, every 
verb must be in one of these six tenses. I will give you the form 
of the verb * study,' in the first, or simple, tenses: Present, I study; 
Past, I studied ; Future, I shall or will study. You may give the 
verb 'play,' in the same way, all together." 

Class. "Present, I play; Past, I played; Future, I shall or will 
play." 

Teacher. "Very good. I will show you how to inflect these verbs 
in the different persons and numbers. Follow me closely while I 
give the verb 'play,' as I shall then give you an opportunity to 
inflect the verb 'study,' yourselves." 



9 6 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary style. 


Solemn style. 




I. I play. 




1. We play. 


2. You play. 


Thou playest. 


2. You play. 


3. He plays. 


He playeth. 


3. They play. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Ordinary style. 


Solemn style. 




I. I played. 




I. We played. 


2. You played. 


Thou playedst. 


2. You played. 


3. He played. 


Future tense. 


3. They played. 


Singular. 


Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I shall or will play. , , , 

Jj ' Thou shalt 

2. You shall or will play. or wik play 

3. He shall or will play. 



1. We shall or will play. 

2. You shall or will play. 

3. They shall or will play. 



Teacher. "You may give the verb * study,' in concert, as I point 
to this form on the blackboard. 

The teacher should put his inflection of the verb " play " on the board, 
as he gives it. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I study. 

2. You study. 

3. He studies. 



Solemn style. 

Thou studiest. 
He studieth. 



Past tense. 



Singular. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I studied. 

2. You studied. 

3. He studied. 



Solemn style. 
Thou studiedst. 



1. We study. 

2. You study. 

3. They study. 



Plural. 

1. We studied. 

2. Ye studied. 

3. They studied. 






ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB— TENSE. 97 

Future tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I shall or will study. m , , , I. We shall or will study. 

i Thou shalt or __ , „ 

2. You shall or will study. wilt study 2. You shall or will study. 

3. He shall or will study. 3. They shall or will study. 

Teacher. " Pupils, these three tenses in which you have inflected 
the verb * study,' have separate signs by which you may distinguish 
them. I will give these signs in tabular form." 

Signs. 
Present tense . . . (now). 
Past tense . . . (yesterday). 

Future tense . . . shall or will. 

Teacher. " You will not always find the signs, now and yesterday, 
used with the verbs, but you can always apply them to their re- 
spective tenses and make sense ; as, Present, I study (now) ; Past, I 
studied (yesterday) ; Future, T shall or will study." 

i. The wind carried my hat across the street. 

2. I will study my lesson. 

3. The rose blooms beautifully, but it soon will wither: 

4. My oleander blossoms have a beautiful straw color. 

5. Father paid seventy-five cents for my new grammar. 

Teacher. " Now, pupils, who can tell me the verb and its tense 
in the first sentence?" 

All hands up. 

TeacJur. "Mary." 

Mary. "« Carried' is a verb in the past tense." 

Teacher. " Why ? James." 

James. "Because we can use * yesterday ' after the verb and make 
sense." 

Teacher. " Susan, you may read the sentence, showing that the 
use of 'yesterday' makes good sense." 

Susan. "The wind carried my hat across the street yesterday." 

Teacher. " Well done, Susan. I will give the programme for 

parsing a verb, as far as we have studied it, and will parse one for 

you." 

H. Gram. — 9. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The teacher will here place on the blackboard the following partial pro- 
gramme for parsing a verb: 

Species ? Tense f Person ? Number f Construction ? Rule ? 

The teacher will notice that no other sentences are used but such as con- 
tain the three tenses explained. 

Teacher. "I will parse 'have,' in the fourth sentence. Have is 
a verb, present, third, plural, to agree with its subject, * blossoms,' 
Rule 9, A finite verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 
This rule you will find on page 182. Henry, you may rise and parse 
'paid,' in the fifth sentence." 

Henry. "Paid is a verb, past, third, singular, to agree with its 
subject, 'father,' Rule 9." 

Teacher. "Very good. For your next recitation you may parse 
such words as I have italicized in the following sentences. " 

1. Mary looks quite well now, though she was very sick 
yesterday. 

2. We believe diligent study will bring a rich reward. 

3. The men worked until another party relieved them. 

4. Kindness shown to others will make us happy. 

5. Honesty pays. Will you try it? 



PERFECT TENSES. 



514. Recitation — Written Parsings of Verbs — 
Signs of the Three Tenses given. 

515* Drill. — Teacher. "Pupils, we will now give attention to 
the three perfect tenses. * Perfect ' is used in the sense of completed 
or accomplished. The simple past tense, 'I studied,' refers to simple 
past time, and may be known by taking (yesterday) after it, as, I 
have shown you already. The past perfect tense, 'I had studied,' 
refers to a past act completed or perfected before some other past 
time mentioned or implied, and may always be known by the signs 
had or hadst. The simple present tense, 'I study,' refers to an act 
which is now going on. (Now) is the sign of this tense, as I told 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB— TENSE. 99 

you yesterday. The present perfect tense, *I have studied,' refers to 
an act completed in a period of present time. This tense you will 
know by the signs have, hast, has, or hath. The future tense denotes 
any future time ; the future perfect tense points out a time before 
some other future time; its sign is shall or will have." 

Sig7is. 
Present perfect tense . . HAVE, hast, has, or HATH. 
Past perfect tense . . . HAD or HADST. 

Future perfect tense . . SHALL have or will have. 

"All verbs in these three tenses are accompanied by their appro- 
priate signs, hence you can readily distinguish them. For example, 
the verb * play ' : Present perfect, I have played ; past perfect, I had 
played; future perfect, I shall or will have played." 

Teacher will write on the board the names of the six tenses, in order. 

Teacher. "As I point to this form on the board, you may give 
the verb * study,' naming each tense. All together." 

Class. "Present, I study; present perfect, I have studied; past, I 
studied ; past perfect, I had studied ; future, I shall or will study ; 
future perfect, I shall or will have studied." 

Teacher. "Very good. I will ask Jane to take the verb 'rest,' 
and give the first person in the same way." 



Jane. "Present, I rest. 

Present perfect, I have rested 

Future, I shall or will rest. 

Future perfect, I shall have rested or will have rested 



Past, I rested. 

Past perfect, I had rested. 



Teacher. " Very well. I will now ask you to parse some words 
in the following sentences for your next recitation. You may also 
memorize the signs of the six tenses, so that you can write them on 
the board, at the next recitation, without looking at your books." 

i. I believe James has visited Europe. 

2. When I saw Henry, he said you had departed. 

3. Before you will begin your work, I shall have finished 
mine. 

4. We live in an age of many privileges. 

5. The hunters will kill no squirrels to-day. 

6. One who lives for others will find many friends. 



ioo ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Teacher. "You will use the same programme I gave you yester- 
day. I will parse * shall have finished.' You will find it in the 
third sentence. Shall have finished is a verb, future perfect, first, 
singular, to agree with its subject, 'I,' Rule 9. How many think 
they can parse all the words in italics, for the next parsing lesson ? " 

One hand not up. 

Teacher, "What word, John, do you think you can not parse?" 
John. " i Had departed,' in the second sentence." 

Teacher. "Who can parse it?" 

Hands up. 

Teacher. "Julia." 

Julia. "Had departed is a verb, past perfect, second, singular or 
plural, to agree with its subject, 'you,' Rule 9." 

Teacher. "John, do you understand it now?" 
John. "Yes, sir. I had forgotten how to tell the number, but I 
see it now." 

Teacher. "I think no one of you will have any difficulty with 
this lesson." 



MODE. 

516. Recitation — Written Parsings. 

Criticism of parsings by pupils themselves, papers being previously ex- 
changed. 

Teacher. "Pupils, I will now tell you something about modes. 
There are different ways of expressing actions or states of being. 
The grammarians call these different ways, modes. You may know 
them .by their use or their signs. All those forms of the verb which 
you have studied thus far, are in the Indicative Mode. This mode 
is used simply to declare something, or to ask a question ; as, ' The 
boys run ' ; ' Have you heard the news ? ' 

517. Potential Mode. — The next mode I wish you to learn 
is the Potential. You will recognize it by its signs, may, can, or 
must; might, could, would, or should. This mode has but four tenses, 
and is used to express power, possibility, liberty, or necessity. I 
will take the verb * study,' and give the four tenses in the potential 
mode. 






ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB— MODE. IOI 

Present tense, I may, can, or must study. 

Present perfect tense, I may, can, or must have studied. 
Past tense, I might, could, would, or should study. 

Past perfect tense, I might, could, would, or should have studied. 

" How many think they can now tell when any verb is in the po- 
tential mode? " 

All hands are up. 

Teacher. " You may give the verb 'rest,' in the same way or 
mode in which I gave * study.' All together." 

Class. " P?'esent, I may, can, or must rest; present perfect, I may, 
can, or must have rested ; past, I might, could, would, or should 
rest; past pei feet, I might, could, would, or should have rested." 

Teacher. " Very good. You will all notice that, in this mode, the 
signs of the perfect tenses are formed by adding have to the sign of 
the present or past. We can now enlarge our programme for pars- 
ing verbs." 

The teacher will put on the blackboard the following programme : 
Species f Mode ? Tense ? Person ? Number ? Construction ? Rule f 

Before parsing, the teacher should drill the class, in concert, in giving 
the tenses of the potential mode, using different verbs, until all join in 
promptly, calling on any pupil singly, when he seems to fall below the 
class average. 

i. You may go now, but must return in one hour. 

2. I can read quite well, but John reads better. 

3. We should treat others as we desire they should treat us. 

4. Many say, when old, I might have improved my time 
much better. 

5. Who could have expected such a result? 

6. The man may have come to the house, but I must have 
been at the office. 

7. We might acco7nplish much more by a little extra effort. 

8. He should have learned to control himself in youth. 

9. Attention to the warnings of his friends would have 
prevented his disgrace. 

10. Who could see it, who would suffer it, without remon- 
strance ? 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Teacher. "Mary, you may rise and parse the first verb in the 
first sentence, following the new programme." 

Mary. "May go is a verb, potential, present, second, singular or 
plural, to agree with its subject, 'you,' Rule 9." 

Teacher. "Very good. For the next lesson parse, in your exer- 
cise-book, such words as I ask you to mark in your grammars." 



IMPERATIVE MODE— SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

518. Criticism of Written Parsings. 

Commend neatness, freedom from blots. Give hearty approval of the 
industry of the dullest pupils. 

519. Imperative Mode. — Teacher. " The third mode which 
I shall ask you to study, is called the Imperative Mode. It is used 
for commanding ; as, * Give me that book ' ; for exhorting ; as, * Go 
not in the way of evil ' ; for entreating ; as, ' Pardon me ' ; for per- 
mitting ; as, * Do as you please.' You notice, pupils, that the imper- 
ative mode has four uses, and in no one is the subject expressed, 
but it is always thou or you or ye, understood ; hence it is always in 
the second person. We might say, * You come to me,' * You give 
me the book ' ; but it sounds best to omit the subject, you. You 
will also notice that it has but one tense, the present. Point out 
imperatives in the following sentences." 

i. Seek the lost; raise the fallen. 

2. Treat all your playmates with kindness. 

3. * Complain not of hard lessons, but overcome difficulty by 
hard study. 

4. Prepare for a useful life ; spread happiness around you. 

5. Spare me, stranger; take not a life so young. 

6. Forgive me, father, all the wrong I 've done. 

520. Subjunctive Mode. — Teacher. " You may include the 
Subjunctive Mode in this lesson. You will know it usually by the 
signs if, though, lest, unless, which precede the verb ; as, * If you go, 
be careful lest you offend some one.* The subjunctive mode is used 



ETYMOLOGY— TRANSIVITY. 103 

to express a conditional circumstance, and is found in two tenses, 
the present and the past. I will give you examples, and you may 
parse, for the next recitation, the italicized words." 

7. If you venture, you may regret the step. 

8. Though he wandered far, he was not lost. 

9. Go not, lest thou perish, 

10. Unless he return soon, he may find the door locked. 

Teacher. u How many think they can parse verbs in the subjunc- 
tive and imperative modes?" 

Some hands up. 

Teacher. "They are parsed by the same programme as other 
verbs. Mary, you may parse * prepare,' in the fourth sentence." 

Mary. "Prepare is a verb, imperative, present, second, singular, 
to agree with its subject, 'thou,' understood, Rule 9." 

Teacher. "Why imperative? Mary." 

Mary. "Because it is used for commanding or entreating." 

Teacher. " Very good. John may parse ' wandered,' in the eighth 
sentence." 

John. "Wandered is a verb, subjunctive, past, third, singular, to 
agree with its subject, 'he,' Rule 9." 



TRANSIVITY. 



521. Written Parsings of Verbs — Criticism. 

522. Transivity. — Teacher. "Pupils, I will endeavor, now, 
to gratify your desire to understand the meanings of those two 
words, transitive and active, in Rule 17: The object of a transitive ve?'b, 
in the active voice, must be in the objective case. With reference to 
their use, all verbs are said to be transitive or i?itransitive. Is the 
following sentence complete? 'James drives.' What do you say, 
Mary?" 

Mary. "It is not, for you do not tell what James drives." 
Teacher. "Mary is right. You all see that 'drives' is a verb 

which will not make complete sense with its subject alone. Who 

will supply a word to complete the sense?" 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hands up. 
Teacher. ' ' James. ' ' 
James. " James drives a horse." 

Teacher. " What is the relation of 'horse' to 'drives'? Susan." 
Susan. "Horse is the object of the verb 'drives.'" 
Teacher. "Very well. A transitive verb, then, is one that re- 
quires an object to complete its meaning. We may say, ' The boys 
run,' or 'The birds fly,' and have complete sense; these verbs are 
intransitive, for, A71 intransitive verb is one that does not require an 
object to complete its meaning. I wish you to use these definitions in 
parsing verbs, hereafter. You may determine which are transitive 
and which intransitive verbs in the following sentences. " 

i. The sun rises in the east. 

2. Charles gave a ripe peach to the sick woman. 

3. Lightning purifies the atmosphere. 

4. Our cousins have come from the city. 

5. Water freezes at 32 ° Fahrenheit. 

6. Water boils at 212 Fahrenheit. 

7. I must learn my lesson. 

Teacher. "How many can tell whether the verb 'rises' is trans- 
itive or intransitive?" 
Most hands are up. 
Teacher. "John." 

John. "Rises is an intransitive verb." 
Teacher. "Why, Mary?" 
Mary. "It does not require an object to complete its meaning." 

523. Drill in Voice. — Teacher. "If I should say, 'The horse 
kicked John,' what is it that acts? All together." 

Class. "The subject, 'horse.'" 

Teacher. "Very good. You notice, when I change it, thus, 
'John is kicked by the horse,' the subject of the verb is 'John,' 
who does not act, but receives the action. In the first sentence, the 
verb is said to be in the active voice, because the subject, 'horse,' 
acts. In the second sentence, the verb is said to be in the passive 
voice, because the subject, 'John,' received the action ; in other words, 
is passive to the action. Take another example : ' James plows the 
field.' In what voice is the verb 'plows'? Henry." 



ETYMOLOGY— TR ANSI VITY. 105 

Henry. "Active voice." 

Teacher. "Why?" 

Henry. "Because the subject, 'James,' acts." 

Teacher. "Very well. Who will change this sentence so that the 
verb may be passive?" 

Hands up. 

Teacher. "Jane." 
Jane. "The field is plowed by James." 

Teacher. " Very good, Jane. Now, Julia, why is this verb, * is 
plowed,' in the passive voice?" 

Julia. "Because the subject, 'field,' receives the action." 

Teacher. " Voice, then, shows the relation between the verb and 
its subject, the subject acting or receiving the action. The active 
voice, then, is that form which verbs take whose subjects act; the 
passive voice is that form which verbs take whose subjects receive 
action. 

"All intransitive verbs are in the active voice, only; and even 
those which do not denote action, are in the active voice, because 
they are in the same form as those verbs whose subjects do act. 
Transitive verbs have both voices : the active and the passive. You 
may apply this means of distinction in determining the voice of verbs 
in the following sentences." 

8. Sarah met her friend in the city. 

9. My slate is broken. 

10. The seed was sown, and in due time it will ripen into 
a beautiful harvest. 

11. James was seen by me. 

12. The letter was written, but I forgot to mail it. 

13. The man whom I saw was the President. 

14. The book which you gave me was returned. 

Teacher. "We will now enlarge our programme for parsing verbs. 
You may copy it into your books, as I write it on the board. 1 I 
will parse the verb 'saw,' in the thirteenth sentence, 'The man 
whom I saw was the President.' Saw is a verb, transitive, active, 
indicative, past, first, singular, to agree with its subject, *I,' Rule 9." 



* Species? Transivity? Voice? Mode? Tense? Person? Number? 
Construction ? Rule ? 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mary's hand is up. 

Teacher. "What is it, Mary?" 

Mary. "I do not see why the verb ' saw ' is transitive here." 

Teacher, "Class, who will tell Mary why the verb * saw ' is tran- 
sitive? James, will you?" 

Jai7ies. " Because it takes the object wliom to complete its 
meaning." 

Teacher. "Now, Mary, you may parse whom." 

Mary. "Whom is a pronoun, relative, agreeing with its antece- 
dent, man, in the third, singular, masculine, Rule 5, and is in the 
objective case, the object of the verb 'saw,' Rule 17." 

Teacher. "Very good. Charles may parse the verb in the ninth 
sentence, 'My slate is broken.'" 

Charles. "Is broken is a verb, transitive, passive, indicative, pres- 
ent, third, singular, agrees with its subject, 'slate,' Rule 9." 

Susan's hand is up. 

Teacher. "What is it, Susan?" 

Susan. "Why is it transitive?" 

Teacher. " All passive verbs are transitive, because their subjects 
are objects; or, in other words, their subjects receive the action. 
For the next recitation you may parse the words you have marked." 

Note. — Before leaving the second section of this lesson, the teacher 
should satisfy himself that all the pupils can tell the transivity and the 
voice of all the verbs in the first seven sentences of the lesson. 



INFINITIVE MODE— PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

524. Recitation — Examination of Sentences formed 
by the Class, and Written Parsings. 

525. Infinitive Mode. — Teacher. "Pupils, the modes which 
you have studied thus far are called finite; that is, they are finited, 
or limited, in person and number. The two modes which remain 
have no person and number. They are the Infinitive and the Par- 
ticipial modes. The infinitive has two tenses, the present and the 
perfect, and is found in both voices. The sign of the present infin- 
itive is to ; for example, to teach, to be taught. The sign of the perfect 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB— MODE. 107 

infinitive is TO have ; for example, to have taught, to have been taught. 
You may point out the infinitives in the following sentences." 

1. Strive to make some improvement every day. 

2. I gave James permission to go. 

3. Mary was anxious to see Susan. 

4. We love to walk in the morning air. 

5. I am glad to hear of your success. 

6. John is said to have gone to sea. 

7. We are not willing to be called lazy. 

8. It is better to be loved by a dog than hated by it. 

9. He is said to have been educated in science and 
language. 

10. To have obeyed our parents, will enable us the better 
to obey God. 

Teacher. " Before studying infinitives further, I will ask your at- 
tention to the participial mode. 

526. Participial Mode. — "The participial mode is some- 
times called, simply, the Participle, as the infinitive mode is frequently 
called the Infinitive. The participle has three tenses, present , past, and 
perfect ; and is found in both voices. Only transitive verbs have passive 
participles." 

Active Voice. 

SIGNS. EXAMPLES. 

Present participle, ing ; loving, learning, studying. 

Past participle, (having) ; loved, learned, studied. 

Perfect participle, having ; having learned, having studied. 

Teacher. "The past active participle is used only with some aux- 
iliary to form the perfect tenses in the active voice ; as, he has learned, 
he had learned.'''' 

Passive Voice. 





SIGNS. 


EXAMPLES. 


Present participle, 


being ; 


being loved, being taught. 


Past participle, 


(being) ; 


loved, taught, studied. 


Pei feet participle, 


having been ; 


having been loved, having been 
taught. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Teacher, " By these signs you will know the different participles. 
The past passive participle may take being before it without marring 
the sense ; but you will have no difficulty in determining it by the 
sense of the passage. For example : * John had hidden the ball in 
his pocket.' Here, hidden is the past active participle, being used 
with had, to form a perfect tense to the active voice. But, ' I dis- 
covered the ball, hidden in John's pocket,' makes hidden the past 
passive participle ; for I can say, ' I discovered the ball, (being) hid- 
den in John's pocket,' without materially disturbing the sense. You 
may name the participles in the following examples." 

i. Do you hear the children's singing? 

2. Mary, having studied her lesson, has gone into the 
fields to play. 

3. The painter, reaching to catch his brush, fell from 
the scaffold. 

4. The house now being erected, belongs to the mer- 
chant. 

5. He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. 

6. My purpose having been accomplished, I returned 
home. 

7. Ringing the bell is the janitor's hourly duty. 

8. Exercising the mind develops business power. 

9. The enemy being conquered, peace was restored. 

10. The workman, wearied by the labors of the day, seeks 
his quiet home. 

11. Mary, admired and beloved by all her schoolmates, 
has left school. 

12*. Books handsomely bound too often betray their use- 
lessness. 

13. I am expecting goods sent by express. 

14. Those exercises, thoroughly examined and corrected, 
have been returned to their owners. 

Teacher. " Pupils, you may turn to page 195* where you will find 
the 20th Rule, which we will now use in parsing infinitives and par- 
ticiples : Infinitives and participles have the construction of nouns, adjec- 
tives, or adverbs. I will put the programme on the blackboard." 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB— MODE. 109 

The teacher will put on the board the following: 

Species? Transivityt Voice? Mode? Tense? Construction? Rule? 

Teacher. "You notice, pupils, this is like the programme for 
parsing verbs, except that person and number are omitted. I will 
parse 'planted,' in the fifth sentence: * He shall be like a tree planted 
by the rivers of water.' Planted is a verb, transitive, passive, par- 
ticipial, past, with the construction of an adjective. Rule 20, limiting 
the noun 'tree,' Rule I. Mary, you may parse 'ringing,' in the sev- 
enth sentence: 'Ringing the bell is the janitor's hourly duty.'" 

Mary. "Ringing is a verb, transitive, active, participial, present, 
with the construction of a noun, Rule 20, the subject of the finite 
verb is, Rule 15." 

Teacher. "Well done, Mary. You notice, class, that 'ringing' 
is parsed as a verb, because it retains its verbal nature in governing 
the noun bell, in the objective case, and has the construction of a 
noun, because it is the subject of another verb. I will now parse 'to 
walk,' in the fourth sentence of the second section of this lesson: 
'We love to walk in the morning air.' To walk is a verb, intransi- 
tive, active, infinitive, present, with the construction of a noun, Rule 
20, object of the verb 'love,' Rule 17. 

"Your greatest difficulty will be in determining the construction; 
but I think in most cases you will be able to determine whether the 
infinitive or participle is used most like a noun, an adjective, or an 
adverb. Has any one a question to ask ? " 

Charles' hand is up. 

Teacher. "Charles." 

Charles. " I would like to have one more example in parsing in- 
finitives." 

Teacher. "What shall it be, Charles?" 

Charles. " To have obeyed, in the tenth sentence, 'To have obeyed 
our parents, will enable us the better to obey God.' " 

Teacher. "Who would like to try it?" 

Few hands up. 

Teacher. "Susan. I fear, boys, the girls will excel you." 

Susan. " To have obeyed is a verb, transitive, active, infinitive, 
perfect, construction of a noun, Rule 20, subject of the verb will 
enable, Rule 15." 

Teacher. "Well done. For the next recitation, parse the words 
you have marked in your grammars." 



HO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 



527. Criticism of Written Parsings of Participles 
and Infinitives. 

528. Classes of Verbs. — Teacher. "Pupils, there are two 
classifications of verbs : First, as to USE, namely, transitive and intran- 
sitive. These you have already studied. Secondly, as to form, verbs 
are either regular or irregular. Verbs have three princip »/ pai'ts, or 
parts from which all others are formed ; they are the present and the 
past tenses, and the past participle. Take the verb 'play.' Present, 
play ; past, played ; past participle, played. Pupils, how do the past 
tense and past participle differ in form from the present tense? All 
together." 

Class. "They have ed added to the form of the present tense." 

Teacher. "Right. 'Play' is, then, a regular verb, because every 
regular verb forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed to 
the present tense. 

" But, according to the fourth rule for spelling, words ending in 
e silent, omit the e on taking an additional syllable beginning with 
a vowel. Charles, you may give the principal parts of the verb 
'dine.'" 

Charles, "Present tense, dine; past tense, dined; past participle, 
dined." 

Teacher. "I will give the principal parts of the verb 'do,' using 
the signs of these parts. Present tense } I do (now) ; past tense, I did 
(yesterday) ; past participle, (I have) done. Is ' do ' a regular verb ? 
All together." 

Class. "It is not." 

Teacher. "Why? Mary." 

Mary. "Because it does not form its past tense and past parti- 
ciple by adding ed to the present tense." 

Teacher. "You will find the principal parts of any verb by using 
the signs which I just gave you. James, you may give the principal 
parts of 'do,' omitting the signs." 

James. "Present tense, do; past tense, did; past participle, done." 

Teacher. "Susan, you may give the principal parts of the verb 
'run,' using the signs." 

Susan. "Present tense, I run (now) ; past teitse, I ran (yesterday); 
past participle, (I have) run." 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. in 

Teacher. "Very good. John, you may give the principal parts 
of the same verb, without the signs." 

John. "Present tense, run; past tense, ran; past participle, run." 

Teacher. "Very good. You may determine which are regular, 
and which are irregular verbs, in the following sentences." 

i. Having borne the heat and burden of the day, he 
welcomed the night. 

2. Rejoicing in hope, we press gladly forward. 

3. Our mowing machine cut James's foot so badly, he 
can scarcely walk. 

4. Water is the universal solvent. 

5. I have written a letter to my cousin. 

6. Lucy has composed some delightful music. 

7. James, having chosen his life-work, is determined to 
bend all his energies in that direction. 

8. A pure heart is God's best gift to man. 

9. Numerous expedients have been tried for the relief 
of that difficulty. 

10. He should have come sooner. 

11. I may have been mistaken. 

Teacher. "We can now complete our programme for parsing 

verbs." 

( Regularity ? 
The teacher will write on the board: Species? Classes? A ^ . ., _ 

' \ Trans iv it y ? 

{Principal parts ?) Style ? Voice ? Mode ? Tense ? Person ? Number ? 

Constructs ? Rule ? 

Teacher. " By the same form, omitting person and number, I will 
parse 'having borne,' in the sentence, 'Having borne the heat and 
burden of the day, he welcomed the night.' Having borne is a verb, 
irregular, transitive ; bear, bore, borne, active, participial, perfect, 
with the construction of an adjective, Rule 20, limiting 'he,' Rule I. 

"In parsing regular verbs, the principal parts are omitted. James, 
you may parse 'has composed,' in the sentence, ' Lucy has composed 
some delightful music' " 

James. " Has composed is a verb, regular, transitive, active, indic- 
ative, present perfect, third, singular, to agree with its subject, 'Lucy,' 
Rule 9." 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Teacher. " Very well. I will parse one more verb for you. What 
shall it be? Mary." 

Mary. " * Is,' in the eighth sentence." 

Teacher. "Very well, then; I will take 'is,' in the sentence, 'A 
pure heart is God's best gift to man.' Is is a verb, irregular, in- 
transitive ; be, was, been, active, indicative, present, third, singular, 
to agree with its subject, * heart,' Rule 9. 

"Pupils, tell me whether * welcomed ' is regular or irregular. All 
together." 

Class. "Regular." 

Teacher. " * Press'?" 

Class. "Regular." 

Teacher. " * Have written ' ? " 

Class. "Irregular." 

Teacher. "Henry, you may give the principal parts of the verb 
* write,' using the signs." 

Henry. "Present tense, I write (now) ; past tense, I wrote (yester- 
day) ; past participle, (I have) written." 

Teacher. " Very good. Take the verb * having chosen.' Regular 
or irregular? All together." 

Some hesitation. John's hand is up. 

Teacher. "John." 
John. "I think it is regular." 

Susan's hand is up. 

Teacher. "What do you say, Susan?" 

Susan. "I think it is irregular." 

Teacher. "We will take a vote on it. As many as agree with 
John may hold up their hands." 

Two or three hands are up. 

Teacher. "As many as agree with Susan, that * having chosen' 
is an irregular verb, may hold up their hands." 

Nearly all hands are up. 

Teacher. "John, you may give the principal parts of * having 
chosen,' using the signs." 

John. "Present tense, I choose (now); past tense, I chose 

(yesterday) ; past participle, I have chosen. I see it now." 

Teacher. "I am glad that John, also, agrees with Susan; and 
now, I think, we all see that choose is an irregular verb. Attention 
to the signs will generally bring you out right. Perhaps you will 
have no difficulty now ; but in case of any doubt, you can refer to 
the dictionary. I will now assign you a parsing lesson." 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 113 



THE VERB. 

529. Definition. — A verb is a word used to assert or as- 
sume action ; also, being or state of being. 

53°- The word * assert ' must be taken in a broad sense as in- 
cluding every variety of predication, among which are to affirm, deny, 
interrogate, command, condition, etc., etc. 

53 *• The name is derived from the Latin, verbum, meaning the 
word, because the early grammarians found the verb to be the essen- 
tial word in the sentence. 

532. Classes. — As to Form ; as to Use. 

533. As to form, verbs are Regular or Irregular ; Defective 
or Redundant. 

534. A regular verb is one which forms its past indic- 
ative and past participle by adding ed to the present by the 
rules of spelling; as, call, called, called ; love, loved, lowed ; c 
final, in love, is dropped on taking an additional syllable 
beginning with a vowel, according to Rule 4 for spelling. 

535. An irregular verb does not form its past indicative 
and past participle by adding ed to the present; as, write, 
wrote, written ; hear, heard, heard. Hear, although d is added 
to form the past indicative, is irregular, because ed is not 
added. For a list of these verbs, see page 145. 

536. A defective verb is one deficient in some of the 
modes and tenses. Defective verbs have no participles. 

537. List of Defective Verbs: 



Present. 


Past. 


Present. 


Past. 


Beware, 
Can, 




Quoth, 
Shall, 


quoth or quod, 
should. 


could. 


May, 

Must, 


might, 
must. 


Will, 
Wis, 


would, 
wist. 


Ought, 

H. Oram. — 10. 


ought. 


Wit, 


wot. 



H4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

538- Beware is generally used in the imperative mode ; as, Be- 
ware of the tempter. 

539- Ought is changed to oughtest in the solemn style. 

540- Verbs by some called impersonal, and by others unipersonal, 
may be classed among the defective verbs, since they are used only 
in the third person singular ; as, // snows ; It blows ; It just struck 
ten, etc., with the subject 'it.' 'It' in these cases represents some 
well known antecedent, as the weather, the air, the earth, the clock, 
etc. 

541. A redundant verb is one which has more than one 
form in the past tense or past participle. 

(See List of Redundant Verbs, page H5«) 

542. As to use, verbs are Transitive or Intransitive. 

543. A transitive verb is one that requires an object to 
complete its meaning; as, I see you ; You have a grammar; 
The cat caught a mouse. 

544- Transitive verbs are frequently used without an object ex- 
pressed ; as, John studies diligently ; Mary recites well. These verbs, 
however, are transitive still, since John must study something and 
Mary recite something. 

545- The object of an active transitive verb is generally placed 
after it, but may come before ; as, What side will you choose ? Him 
will I bring speedily ; Here's the man whom you saw. 

546- A transitive verb expresses action or suffering, and not being 
or a state of being. 

547. An intransitive verb is one that does not require an 
object to complete its meaning; as, The wind blows ; The 
sun shines ; He stares vacantly at the moon. 

548. An intransitive verb may govern an object of kindred sig- 
nification. For example, 'lives,' 'dreamed,' 'are playing,' 'grinned,' 
etc., govern objects in such sentences as these: He lives a noble life; 
He dreamed a drea?n ; Those men are playing a game of chess ; Grinned 
horribly a ghastly smile, etc. In such cases, however, some preposi- 
tion may be supplied, which, by poetic license or popular usage, is 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 115 

suppressed : He lives [in, with, or by] a noble life ; He dreamed 
[in or with] a dream ; Those men are playing [at] a game of chess ; 
Grinned horribly [with] a ghastly smile, etc. Intransitive causative 
verbs also govern an object; as, James flies his kite; that is, he causes 
it to fly. 

549- The intransitive verb be is sometimes called a copulative verb, 
or the copula , because used to connect an attribute with the subject 
of the verb ; as, Iron is a 7nctal ; The apple is sweet. ' Metal ' and 
1 sweet ' are attributes belonging to their respective subjects, and joined 
to them and asserted of them by the copula 'is.' 

550' The verb to be is the only pure copula, though other in- 
transitive verbs are frequently thus used ; as, appear, become, seem, etc. 

55 *• The attribute may be a noun, pronoun, or adjective ; as, You 
are the man ; I am he ; The rose is fragrant. 

552- But an adverb is never an attribute. 'He is here.'' In ex- 
pressions of this kind, the attribute is included in the verb 'is,' and 
may be expressed ; as, He is, or He is existing here, or He is sitting 
here, or He is standing here, etc., etc. So of 'She was there.'' In 
such cases the adverb modifies the copula or the attribute included 
in the verb 'be.' 

553- All verbs may be resolved into a copula and an attribute; 
as, James walks; James is walking ; The h\x& flies ; The bird is flying, 
etc. 

554* Ari intransitive verb expresses action; as, The boy runs: or 
being ; as, I exist ; or state of being ; as, The infant sleeps. 

555* An intransitive verb is sometimes compounded with a prep- 
osition, and is thus rendered transitive ; as, Here 's the boy who was 
laughed at. This occurs only in the passive voice. 

556. Causative verbs. — Intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a 
transitive sense, denoting that the action implied is caused ; as, He 
trotted the horse to town. 

557. Modifications. — Style \ Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, 
and Number. 

558. Verbs have four styles : Ordinary, Solemn, Emphatic, 
and Progressive. 



Ii6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

559. The Ordinary style is that most used in speaking 
and writing; as, I study; I shall learn. (See page 135.) 

560. The Solemn style is now obsolete except in the 
Scriptures, in addresses to the Deity, among the Society of 
Friends, and in poetry; as, Thou shall love the Lord thy 
God; Our Father who art in heaven, etc. (See page 135.) 

561. The Emphatic style gives emphasis to the verb; 
as, I do study; I did follow your advice. 

562. This style is made by prefixing the present or past tense of 
the verb do to the ordinary form. (See page 144.) The emphatic 
style is generally used for interrogation ; as, Do you like grammar ? 

563. The Progressive style represents an action or 
state of being as continuing; as, I am studying. (See page 
141-) 

564. The style is made by placing the appropriate tense of the 
verb ' be ' before the present active participle. 

565. Some grammarians have spoken of interrogative and negative 
styles ; but these are not styles of the verb, but rather of the sentence : 
they need no further mention here. 

566. Voice is that modification of the verb which shows 
the relation between the verb and its subject. 

Verbs have two voices : the Active and the Passive. 

567. The Active voice is that form which those verbs 
take whose subjects act; as, I run; I have studied. 

568. All intransitive verbs are in the active voice because they 
have* the form of verbs whose subjects act. 

569. The Passive voice is that form which those verbs 
take whose subjects receive action; as, My book is torn; 
The world was created. 

57°- Transitive verbs may be used both in the active and in the 
passive voice : as, James gave me a present ; A present was given me 
by James. 

571. Intransitive verbs do not, ordinarily, take the passive voice; 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 117 

but some intransitive verbs which, in the active voice, seem to take 
an object having a signification similar to that of the verb, may have 
a passive form ; as, A dream was dreamt ; A game was played; That 
figure was danced, etc. 

572. Other languages place emphatic words at the beginning of 
the sentence. Though our language compels an arrangement which 
does not generally admit of change for this purpose, yet the passive 
voice is sometimes thus employed. For example : l God created all 
things,' calls attention particularly to the creator ; to the actor, as 
having great power ; but * All things were created by God ' directs 
the mind particularly to the origin of 'things.' 

573* The active voice is frequently used with the passive signi- 
fication ; as, Peaches sell readily at two dollars per bushel ; Houses 
to let ; Horses to ride. 

574* The passive voice is sometimes used to conceal the actor ; as, 
The letter was written; The money was stolen. 

575- The passive voice is frequently used in verbs of motion for 
the active; as, The melancholy days are come, for have co??ie ; also in 
conversation; as, She's come, for She has come, etc.; The friends 
were gone before I arrived, for had gone. These verbs are passive by 
enallage. 

576. The passive infinitive frequently omits the sign to and the 
auxiliary be ; as, He ordered the door [to be] shut. (1070, 1075.) 

The active infinitive in the progressive style also frequently omits 
the sign to and the auxiliary be after the active transitive verbs enu- 
merated in Rule 21 ; as, We saw him [to be] coming. 

577. Mode is that modification of the verb which indi- 
cates the manner or condition of the assertion. 

Modes are of two classes : Finite and Infinite. 

578. The Finite Modes are those which are finited or lim- 
ited by person and number. 

They are the Indicative y Potential, Subjunctive, and Im- 
perative. 

579. The Indicative mode is that form of assertion by 
which verbs make a declaration or ask a question; as, I 
have studied; I do study ; I am studying ; Do you see? etc. 



Ii8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

580. The Potential mode implies possibility, power, 
liberty, or necessity, etc.; as, He may go; He can do it; I 
might have accomplished it ; It must be done. 

581. This mode is also used in asking questions; as, May I ac- 
company you? 

582. The signs of this mode are, may, can, or must ; might, could, 
would, or should. 

583. The Subjunctive mode indicates doubt, uncer- 
tainty, or contingency; as, If you go, you will rue it; 
Though he knew the wrong, he did it. 

584- The signs of this mode are the conjunctions if, though, lest, 
and unless; also the fact of condition without the preceding signs. 

585. The verbal sign is frequently omitted when the order of the 
words is changed ; as, Had I knoivn you were going, I would have 
accompanied you, for If I had known, etc. 

586. The subjunctive sometimes implies a certainty of a negative 
character; as, If I had known that, I should have gone, implying 
that / did not knozv. 

587. The subjunctive past is often used by enallage for potential 
past ; as, It were a happy life to be a thoughtless swain, for, It would 
be a happy life to be, etc. 

588. Little space need be given to the discussion of the subjunc- 
tive mode, since it is obsolescent, and will probably soon become ob- 
solete. The verb in this mode with many reputable authors has the 
form of the indicative. Some grammarians are coming to the opinion 
that the subjunctive mood should be entirely rejected from present 
use and discussion. 

589. The Imperative mode is used for commanding, ex- 
horting, entreating, permitting, and proposing a condition; as, 
Confess your sins; Forward, march! Go in peace; Admit 
that, and your case is lost. 

590. The sign of this mode is its use, being generally without a 
subject expressed. When the subject is expressed, it usually follows 
the verb ; as, Be ye one another's joy. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 119 

591- The imperative is used in the third person but rarely. In 
the exclamatory form: Long live the king! By poetic license: Dumb 
be the atheist tongue abhorred! — Goold Brown. 

592. Tense is that modification of the verb by which the 
time of an action is indicated, or the assertion is modified. 
There are two classes of tenses : Simple and Perfect. 

593. The Simple tenses are three in number: Present, 
Past, and Future. 

594. The Perfect tenses are: Present perfect, Past per- 
fect, and Future perfect. 

The tenses will be treated under the different modes. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



595. The indicative mode has all the tenses, six in num- 
ber. (See Conjugation, page 135.) 

596. The Present tense indicates simple present time; 
as, I write ; I do write ; I am writing. 

597* ^e present tense asserts general truths ; as, God is wise. 

598. The historical present is used for the past; as, Goldsmith writes 
excellent poetry. 

599. The present is frequently used as referring to the future ; as, 
When I [shall] see him, I will deliver your message. 

600. The Past tense indicates simple past time; as, / 
wrote ; I did write ; I was writing. 

Remark. — This tense is sometimes called the preterit. 

601. The Future tense indicates simple future time; as, 
I sliall write ; I shall be writing; I will learn. 

602. The Present perfect tense indicates a past time 
completed in the present, or in a period of time not entirely 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



past; as, I have written; The letter has been written this 
morning; The redemption of Italy has been accomplished in 
the nineteenth century. 

603. The present perfect tense may indicate future time; as, I 
will come when he has returned — enallage for shall have. 

604. The Past perfect tense indicates a definite past 
time ; as, I had written. 

605. The Future perfect tense indicates a definite 
future time ; as, I shall have returned by that time. 

606. The tenses of the indicative mode have the following signs, 
arranged in tabular form. Those in parentheses are not always found 
with the verb, but may always be supplied with their proper tenses 
without marring the sense : 



Tenses. 
Present, 
Past, 
Future, 

Present Perfect, 
Past Perfect, 
Future Perfect, 



Signs. 

(now), 
(yesterday). 

SHALL or WILL. 

HAVE, HAST, HAS, or HATH. 

HAD or HADST. 

SHALL HAVE or WILL HAVE. 



Exa?nples. 
I study [now). 
I studied {yesterday). 
I shall study, etc. 
I have studied, etc. 
I had studied, etc. 
I shall have studied. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

607. The potential mode has four tenses : Present, Past, 
Present Perfect, and Past Perfect. (See Conjugation, p. 136.) 

608. The Present potential frequently expresses futu- 
rity; indeed, it seems more frequently future than present; 
as, I may go (to-morrow) ; I can do it (now) ; I must do it 
(soon). 

609. The Past potential refers to past, present, or fut- 
ure time ; as, He could do it (yesterday) ; I might go (now) ; 
I should see him (immediately); I might help you (to-morrow). 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 12 I 

610. The Present perfect potential also refers to past, 
present, or future time, but more definitely than the past 
tense; as, He may have done it; I must have taken it (just 
now) ; He may have become wiser by that time. 

611. The Past perfect potential refers to past time in 
such a manner as to express a negation ; as, I could have done 
it; that is, I could, but I did not; You should have heard 
that speech — implying that the person did not hear it. 

612. The tenses of the potential mode have the following signs 
expressed or understood. Each tense, therefore, will always be known 
by its appropriate sign or signs : 

Tenses. Signs. Examples. 

Present. MAY, CAN, or MUST. You may study, etc. 

Past, might, could, would, or You might study, etc. 

SHOULD. 
Present Perfect, MAY, CAN, or MUST HAVE. You may have studied, etc. 
Past Perfect, might, could, would, or You should have studied, etc. 

SHOULD HAVE. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



613. The subjunctive mode has three tenses: Present, 
Past, and Past Perfect. (Conjugation, pages 134, 137, 140.) 

614. The Present subjunctive frequently implies future 
time ; as, If I see him (to-morrow) I will make it right. 

615. The Past subjunctive refers (1) to a past contin- 
gency; also, (2) to a present supposition; as, (a) If you 
heard Beecher you were well paid ; (b~) If I were you (now) 
I'd act differently. 

616. The Past perfect subjunctive expresses a past 
supposition, equivalent to an indicative negative; as, Had I 
known that was broken ice, I would not have ventured on 

H. Gram. — n. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it; that is, I did not know, or I would not have ventured, 
etc. 

6l7- The signs of the tenses of the subjunctive mode are the same 
as those of corresponding tenses in the indicative mode. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

6 1 8. The imperative mode has one tense, — the Present. 

619. The imperative frequently refers to the future; as, Come and 
see me next week. 

620. Number and person are applied to finite verbs. 

621. Verbs have in reality no number and person, but chiefly for 
the sake of euphony assume different forms to agree with their sub- 
jects : rather to agree with the ear. (See Conjugation, page 132.) 

622. The two numbers are applied to all finite verbs ; the three 
persons to all except the imperative mode, which is used generally in 
the second person, and occasionally in the third (see Art. 591); but 
never in the first person. 

623. The first person, singular and plural, takes the simple form 
of the verb ; as, I read ; We read. 

624. The second person singular, solemn style, takes st, est, or 
edst, suffixed to the simple form of the verb; as, Thou writer; Thou 
reddest; Thou wak\r// Thou hurriedst. The verb be changes are to 
art; as, Thou art the man. (See pages 133, 145.) 

625. The second person, singular and plural, ordinary style, takes 
the simple form of the verb ; as, You study ; You or ye learn. 

626. The third person singular, present indicative active, ordinary 
style, is formed as the plural of nouns ; as, He learns ; He studies. 

627. The third person singular, present indicative active, solemn 
style, takes th or eth ; as, Give to him that asketh ; He that co?neth 
after me is mightier than I. 

628. In the perfect tenses only the auxiliaries are varied for num- 
ber and person. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 123 



INFINITE MODES— INFINITIVE, PARTICIPIAL. 

629. The infinite modes are those which have no limita- 
tion of person and number. 

630. They are ordinarily called Infinitives and Participles. 

631. Both are infinite, because both are unlimited by per- 
son and number. 

632. Both are participial, because both partake of the nat- 
ure of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, in addition to that of 
verbs. For convenience, however, we call one mode Infin- 
itive and the other Participial. 

633. Infinitives. — There are two Infinitives, Present and Per- 
fect^ known by the signs to and TO have. For example, the verb 

ivrite : 

Active. Passive. 

Present, TO write, TO be written. 

Perfect, to have written, TO have been written. 

634. The sign of the infinitive is omitted after the verbs bid, 
dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, please, see, and others of similar sig- 
nification ; as, Bid him return; He can't make me run; Please come 
soon. 

635. The infinitive may have the construction of a noun ; as, 
The subject of a verb ; as, To nut is cowardly. 

The attribute of a sentence ; as, To save is to earn. 

The object of a verb ; as, Jane loves to study. 

The object of a preposition; as, What went ye out for to see? 

Remark. — This form of expression is used in the Scriptures ; it is 
otherwise obsolete. 

In apposition with a noun ; as, This is my purpose, to practice 
economy. 

636. The infinitive may also have the construction of an adjec- 
tive ; as, He gave me permission to go. 

637. The infinitive is also used with the construction of an adverb: 
Limiting a verb ; as, He returned to make an apology. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Limiting an adjective ; as, He was eager to depart. 
Limiting an adverb ; as, That horse is large enough to draw any 
load. 

638. The infinitive, though constructed as a noun, has no case, 
as many grammarians affirm. Case is a modification which does not 
belong to verbs. 

639. An infinitive, as the subject of an intransitive verb, may 
be limited by an adjective in the predicate ; but otherwise it is lim- 
ited by adverbs ; as, To see the sun shine is delightful ; For us to 
win seemed impossible. 

640. 'To,' the sign of the infinitive, has, by many grammarians, 
been erroneously called a preposition. But this, they confess, is to 
"obviate embarrassment"; or, in other words, it is the most con- 
venient method of evading the difficulties and obscurities of infinitive 
constructions, and of concealing their own inability to manage them. 
It would be just as reasonable to make any verb in the indicative 
or the potential mode the object of its auxiliary. Whether 'to' is a 
preposition or not, it is very evident that it loses all prepositional 
force in becoming the sign of the infinitive. To call the infinitive 
the object of its sign 'to,' destroys its force in the sentence, and cre- 
ates the necessity of a new rule for the subject of sentences like the 
following: To steal is base. If 'steal' is the object of 'to,' there is 
no subject for the verb 'is'; for no word except a double relative 
can be the object of a preposition and the subject of a verb at the 
same time; nor can the preposition and its object together be the 
subject of a verb : and more, this preposition (?) has no antecedent 
term of relation, therefore shows no relation. A queer preposition! 

Rule XX., on page 195, provides for all the constructions of in- 
finitives, and is at the same time simple, rational, and necessary. 

641. The infinitive is not absolute in such sentences as the follow- 
ing : To be candid with you, I was in fault ; but limits the verb ' I 
confess,' understood, conditionally. 

642. The infinitive of the verb 'be' is frequently understood; as, 
They elected him [to be] chairman. 

We made him [to be] our captain. 
He reported you [to be] absent. 
I supposed him [to be] an honest man. 
I thought it [to be] necessary. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 125 

643. The time of infinitives depends on the time of the leading 
verb ; as, They declared him to be honest. 'To be ' is present with 
reference to the time of the declaration. In the sentence, I think 
myself to have been fortunate, the perfect infinitive is past with ref- 
erence to the leading verb 'think.' 

644. When the infinitive is the subject of a verb, and has itself 
a subject ; and when the infinitive and its subject follow a passive 
verb, the subject of the infinitive is introduced by the expletive 
'for.' 'For' in this case is not a preposition, though having that 
form ; but is used expletively in introducing abridged sentences in 
the same way that ' that ' introduces complete sentences in like cir- 
cumstances. For example : For him to steal is base ; equivalent to, 
That he should steal is base. 

' Him ' in the abridged sentence is the subject of ' to steal.' When 
the abridged sentence is expanded, 'that' takes the place of 'for.' 

It is wrong for him to cheat ; equivalent to, It is wrong that he 
should cheat: For him to cheat is wrong; equivalent to, That he 
should cheat is wrong. 

In this case, also, 'that' takes the place of 'for,' when the abridged 
sentence is expanded ; and either sentence takes the place of the ex- 
pletive 'it,' in the logical arrangement given in the last equivalents. 

645* Infinitives are frequently used as logical subjects: — 

1. The infinitive is the antecedent of an expletive 'it' in the nom- 
inative ; as, // is impossible for him to come. 

2. The infinitive is the antecedent of an expletive 'it' in the ob- 
jective ; as, I thought it [to be] impossible for us to win. 

3. The infinitive is the antecedent of an expletive ' its ' in the pos- 
sessive ; as, Its being difficult to accomplish, was the very thing which 
stimulated us to make the attempt. 

Remark. — The impossibility of giving the possessive form or case 
to the infinitive 'to accomplish' when substituted for 'its' in the 
above example, is evidence, so far as it goes, that infinite verbs do 
not have case, and never ought to have it attributed to them in any 
position or relation. 

646. Every infinitive has a subject, either expressed or understood. 

647. An infinitive used as a noun ; as, To steal is base. As al- 
ready seen, the subject is ' him ' or ' person ' understood ; For any 
person to steal, is base; equivalent to, That any person should steal, is 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

base. Also : I desired to see you, has the same subject for both the 
finite and the infinite verb; expanded, I desired that I should see you. 

648. An infinitive used as an adverb ; as, They elected him [to 
be] President ; They elected him [for him~\ to be President ; equiva- 
lent to, They elected him that he should be President. In this sen- 
tence, 'him' is the object of 'elected'; but a second him understood . 
is the subject of the infinitive 'to be,' ' President' being the predicate 
objective after 'to be,' and 'to be' has the construction of an adverb 
of purpose limiting 'elected.' 

649. An infinite used as an adjective; as, You have my consent 
to remain ; equivalent to, You have my consent [for you\ to remain; 
equivalent to, You have my consent that you should re?7iain. * To 
remain ' is an abridged sentence, equivalent to, ' for you to remain ' ; 
of which 'for' is the introductory expletive, and 'you,' the subject 
of 'to remain.' This is plainly shown by the expansion of the 
abridged sentence, 'that you should remain,' having 'that' for the 
introductory expletive, and 'you' the subject of the finite verb 'should 
remain.' In this example, the infinitive has the construction of an 
adjective, as it limits the noun 'consent,' describing the kind of 
consent granted. 

650. Abridged sentences in most cases should be expanded be- 
fore the construction is determined, since by this artifice the true 
relation of every element is more clearly seen. Taking sentences 
we have already had, for illustrating other points : They elected him 
[to be] chairman. We see that ' him ' expressed can not be the 
subject of 'to be,' because the sentence thus expanded reads: They 
elected that he should be chairman ; and this does not give the same 
meaning. The subject of the infinitive always becomes the sid)ject of 
the finite verb when the abridged sentence is correctly expanded. I 
thought it [to be] necessary. Here ' it ' is, plainly, the subject of 
'to be,' since the sentence expanded can be made to read in no 
other way than, I thought that it was necessary ; in which expanded 
sentence, ' it ' is the subject of the finite verb ; hence, ' it ' is the sub- 
ject of the infinitive 'to be.' 'To be' is the object of 'thought.' 

651. Participles. — Transitive verbs have six participles ; 
namely, three active and three passive. They are called, 
Present active, Past active, Perfect active, Present passive, Past 
passive, and Perfect passive. Intransitive verbs have only 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 127 

three participles ; namely, Present active. Past active, and Per- 
fect active. They are given in the following table, with their 
appropriate signs, and are always read, Present active, Past 
active, etc., and never Present, Past, etc. 

Active. 

Perfect passive. ING ; as, singing, writing, etc. 

Past active. (having) ; as, sung, written, loved, etc. 

Perfect active. having ; as, having sung, having loved, etc. 

Passive. 
Prese7it passive, being; as, being broken, being exhausted, etc. 

Past passive. (being) ; as, sung, written, loved, etc. 

Perfect passive, having been ; as, having been broken, having been 

exhausted, etc. 

652. The present active participle is always known by its ending 
in ing ; and the present passive by taking * being ' before it. All the 
participles, except the past active, are used in the various construc- 
tions of noun, adjective, or adverb. The present active participle is 
used in conjugating the progressive style of the verb. (Page 141.) 

653* The past active participle is used only in connection with an 
auxiliary to form the perfect tenses of the finite modes in the active 
voice ; as, He has concealed his true character. 

654- The past passive participle is used (1) participially, (2) also 
to form the perfect tenses of the finite modes in the passive voice. 
When used participially, it may take, as a test, 'being' before it, 
without marring the sense. When 'being' is expressed, the parti- 
ciple is present passive. 

Past Active Participle : I have always respected him. 

Past Passive Participle: ! Heisa man re ^ eded b 7 alL 
I He has always been respected. 

655* Whenever the participles are used to form the perfect tenses 
of finite modes, they are not parsed as participles, but, in connection 
with their auxiliaries, as finite verbs. 

656. Only transitive verbs can have passive participles. 

657* A Participle becomes another part of speech: 

658. When placed immediately before the noun which it limits 
it loses its verbal nature and is no longer a participle, but a parti- 
cipial descriptive adjective; as, A convicted felon; An educated man. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

659. When preceded by an adjective or an article, it becomes a 
noun ; as, The dropping of water ; The parsing of a word. 

660. When a participle which governs an object is deprived of 
its verbal force by taking an article or an adjective before it, it must 
take the preposition of after it to govern the object; in no other 
case should the preposition be used after the participle ; as, Shed- 
ding tears — The shedding of tears. 

661. The participle may have the construction of a noun, adjec- 
tive, or adverb, in addition to its verbal force, — that of assuming ac- 
tion, being, or state of being. 

652. As a noun : By cultivating cheerfulness we render others [ 
happy. 

1. Object of a verb: The guard prevented our entering the prison 
limits. 

2. Object of a preposition: After having been reprimanded, he was 
dismissed. 

3. Subject of a verb : Making others [ ] happy is substantial hap- 
piness for ourselves. 

4. As an attribute : Once saving is twice earning. 

663- As an adjective : I saw James driving a fine span of horses ; 
Henry, having written a fine essay, was highly complimented; He 
held a whip firmly clasped in his hand. 

664. As an adverb: She came bounding up the lane; He rushed 
along, stumbling over the chairs. 

665- Participles have no case in our language, though used as 
the subjects or objects of verbs, and as the objects of prepositions. 

666. The time of a participle depends on the time of the leading 
verb, in the same manner as infinitives. For example: Mary, being 
encouraged by her teacher, corrected her fault. Here, the present 
passive participle ' being encouraged ' is present, with reference to the 
time of the leading verb. Again : James, having been petted and 
indulged in every whim and caprice, is rapidly becoming an ungov- 
ernable boy. ' Having been petted ' and * having been indulged ' are 
past, with reference to the time of the leading verb 'is becoming.' 

667- Every participle has a subject expressed or understood. This 
has already been shown to be true with regard to infinitives. For 
examples : I have witnessed your danci?ig ; equivalent to, I have wit- 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 129 

nessed that [or how] you dance ; Having bought a fine team, I can 
enjoy daily drives around the park ; equivalent to, [Since] / have 
bought a fine team, etc. ; The atrocious crime of being a young man, 
I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny. Here, the subject of 
'being' is 'ing' understood, with which 'man' is in predication. 

668. Many participial abridged sentences should be expanded, 
before the construction of the participle can safely be determined. 

669. Distinguishing Participles. 

670. A participle is distinguished from a participial noun by re- 
taining the idea of time in the assumption of action, being, or state 
of being. 

671. A participial noun is distinguished from a pai'ticiple in being 
limited by the article or the adjective, and, of course, in rejecting 
the governing of an object. 

672. A participle is distinguished from a participial adjective by 
retaining the idea of time in the assumption of action, being, or state 
of being. 

673. A participial adjective is distinguished from a participle by 
rejecting the idea of time, and thus expressing only that of quality. 
This is accomplished m our language by placing the participial ad- 
jective immediately before the noun limited, or in the predicate with 
a copula. 

674* A participle is distinguished from a finite verb thus : 

675. A finite verb asserts; a participle assumes. 

676. A finite verb is limited by person and number; a participle 
is not. 

677. A finite verb is an essential element of a sentence ; a par- 
ticiple is not. 

678. The past indicative active is distinguished from the past passive 
participle : 

679. By its being possible to change it into the emphatic style 
and retain the sense ; as, He came yesterday ; changed, He did come 
yesterday. 

680. And by its being impossible to prefix ' being ' without de- 
stroying the sense. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

681. The past passive participle is distinguished from the past iti- 
dicat've active by its admitting * being ' before it without destroying the 
sense. 

682. Principal Parts. — Present Indicative Active, Past 
Indicative Active, and Past Participle. 

683. These are called principal parts, because from them 
all other forms of the verb are made. 

684. Any verb lacking one or more of these parts is de- 
fective. 

685. The Past active participle is used in forming the per- 
fect tenses in the active voice ; the Past passive participle is 
used in forming all the tenses of the passive voice. The forms 
of these two participles are the same. 

686. To give the principal parts is to conjugate the verb. 

687. The Principal Parts are known by the signs, as given 
in the following table : 



Principal Parts. 


Signs. 


Examples. 


Present. 


(now). 


(I) write (now). 


Past Indicative. 


(yesterday). 


(I) wrote (yesterday) 


Past Participle. 


(have). 


(I have) written. 



The verb be is the only verb whose present or root is not found 
by the above test. The root is found in the present infinitive. 

688. Auxiliaries. — These are helping verbs, which assist 
in the inflection of principal verbs. 

OoQ. The auxiliaries are be, do, have, shall, and will ; may, can, 
and must. 

690. May, can, must, and shall are never used as principal verbs, 
but are always auxiliary. 

691. Be, do, have, and will are frequently used as principal verbs. 
(See list, page 145.) 

692. .All the auxiliaries were originally principal verbs. 
693- Only be, do, and have have participles, of which that of 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 131 

do is not used as an auxiliary; and that of have, only in forming 
the perfect participle. 

694. Auxiliaries must be used in forming all tenses except the 
present and the past ; and are used in all tenses in making the em- 
phatic and progressive styles. (See Inflection, pages 132-145.) 

695. As auxiliary verbs, had, should, and would have some pe- 
culiar uses. 

696. Had is used for would ; as, I had rather it had been you 
than I ; equivalent to, I would rather, etc. Had for might ; as, You 
had as well return now ; equivalent to, You might as well, etc. 

697. Would expresses : 

698. A past custom ; as, He would return again and again to his 
prison door. In the same manner, will expresses present custom ; as, 
He will pace the room from morning till night. 

699. A desire ; as, When I wotdd do good, evil is present with 
me. 

700. Intensifies a negation ; as, He would [have] none of these 
things. 

701. Advice, or reproof, or dislike, or request in a courteous man- 
ner ; as, I wotdd prefer a different course ; It zuould seem wrong to 
do so ; Would you lend me your knife ? Should is also used in the 
first instance; as, I should think the other course preferable. 

702. All the auxiliaries are defective, except be, do, and have. 

703. Only be and have are varied in forming tenses as auxiliary 
verbs, in the ordinary style. 

704. Conjugation, Inflection, and Synopsis. 

705. The conjugation of a verb is giving the principal 
parts in order. 

706. Inflection is varying the verb through all its modes 
and tenses; giving it in its persons and numbers. 

707. Giving the synopsis of a verb is giving only one 
person and number through all the modes, tenses, and voices. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

708. The Verb "Be." 

Principal Parts. 

Present Be; Past, Was; Past Participle, Been, 

INFLECTION. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular, Plural, 



Ordinary style. Solemn style, 

1. I am. I. We are. 

2. You are. Thou art. 2. You or ye are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

Past tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. You were. Thou wast.i 2. You or ye were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

Present perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. You have been. Thou hast been. 2. You or ye have been. 
3.^ He has been. He hath been. 3. They have been. 

Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I had been. I. We had been. 

2. You had been. Thou hadst been. 2. You or ye had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 



1 Be in the present and wert in the past are old forms, not used except 
in the Scriptures. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 133 

Future tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. Thou wilt be. 2. You or ye will be. 

3. He will be. 3. They will be. 

Future perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I shall have been. . 1. We shall have been. 

Thou wilt 

2. You will have been. have b 2. You or ye will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



Potential Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. You may be. Thou mayst be. 2. You or ye may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

Past tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I might be. I. We might be. 

2. You be might. Thou mightst be. 2. You or ye might b#. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

Present perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Oi'dinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. lhou ™ a y st 2. You or ye may have been. 
tt 1 -i have been. . 

3. rle may have been. 3. ihey may have been. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural, 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

i. I might have been. oi i. We might have been. 

, T . , , , Thou mightst _ r . 

2. You might have been. have been 2. You, ye might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been, 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural, 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If you be. If thou be. 2. If you or ye be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If you were. If thou wert. 2. If you or ye were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 

Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If you had been. If thou had been. 2. If you or ye had been. 

3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Plural. 

2>. Be, or Do thou Be. 2. Be, or Do ye or you be. 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present, Perfect. 

To be. To have been. 

Participial Mode. 

Pi-ese?tt, Being ; Past, Been ; Perfect, Having been. 

Remark. — Using the conjunction if all the Tenses of the Indic- 
ative and Potential Modes may be made conditional or subjunctive. 






ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 135 

709. The Regular Transitive Verb "Love." 

Principal Parts. 

Present, Love; Past, Loved; Past Participle, Loved. 

INFLECTION. 

Ordinary and Solemn Styles, 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. You love. Thou lovest. 2. You or ye love. 

3. He loves. He loveth. 3. They love. 

Past tense. 
Sing ular. Plural. 



07-dinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. You loved. Thou lovedst. 2. You or ye loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Present perfect tense. 

Singula r. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved. 

2. You have loved. Thou hast loved. 2. You or ye have loved. 

3. He has loved. He hath loved. 3. They have loved. 

Past perfict tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordi7iary style. Solemn style. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. You had loved. Thou hadst loved. 2. You or ye had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 



136 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Future tense. 



Singular. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I shall love. 

2. You will love. 

3. He will love. 



Solemn style. 



Thou wilt love. 



Plural, 



1. We shall love. 

2. You or ye will love. 

3. They will love. 



Future perfect tense. 



Ordinary style. 

1. 1 shall have loved. 

2. You will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 



Solemn style. 

Thou wilt 
have loved. 



Plural. 



1. We shall have loved. 

2. You or ye will have loved. 

3. They will have loved. 



Potential Mode. 



Present tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

I. I may love. 



x. J. IU.O.J xwy\^. x. vvc ii.i<xy 1UVC. 

2. You may love. Thou mayest love. 2. You or ye may love. 

3. He may love. 



We may love. 



you or ye may 
They may love. 



Past tense. 



Singular. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I might love. 

2. You might love. 

3. He mi^ht love. 



Solemn style. 



Thou mightst love. 



Plural. 

1. We might love. 

2. You or ye might love. 

3. They might love. 



Present perfect tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordina?y style. 

1. I may have loved. 

2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 



Solemn style. 

Thou mayest 
have loved. 



1. We may have loved. 

2. You, ye may have loved. 

3. They may have loved. 



ETYxMOLOGY— THE VERB. 137 

Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I might have loved. I. We might have loved. 

2. You might have loved. Thou mi ^ htst 2. You, ye might have loved. 

• 7 , ^ 1 have loved. _. J . , & , 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If you love. If thou love. 2. If you or ye love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Past tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I loved. I. If we loved. 

2. If you loved. If thou loved. 2. If you or ye loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I had loved. I. If we had loved. 

2. If you had loved. If thou had loved. 2. If you or ye had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Present tense. Plural. 

2. Love, or Do thou love. 2. Love, or Do ye or you love. 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present. Perfect. 

To love. To have loved. 

H. Gram. — 12. 



133 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Participial Mode. 

Present, Past. 

Loving. Loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE, i 
Indicative Mode. 



Perfect. 
Having loved. 



Present tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Sole nut style. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I am loved. I. We are loved. 

2. You are loved. Thou art loved. 2. You or ye are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 



Past tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Solemn style. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I was loved. I. We were loved. 

2. You were loved. Thou wast loved. 2. You or ye were loved. 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Present perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I have been loved. 



Solemn style. 
Thou hast 1. We have been loved. 

2. You have been loved. keen Ioved - 2. You, ye have been loved. 

He hath 

3. He has been loved. been i ove( j 3. They have been loved. 



Past perfect tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordi7iary style. 

1. I had been loved. 

2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 



Solemn style. 

Thou hadst 
been loved. 



1. We had been loved. 

2. You, ye had been loved. 

3. They had been loved. 



i The passive voice, except the passive participle, is formed by prefixing 
the appropriate forms of the verb be to the past passive participle. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 



*39 



Future tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I shall be loved. 

2. You will be loved. 

3. He will be loved. 

Singular. 



Solemn style. 

Thou wilt be 
loved. 



1. We shall be loved. 

2. You or ye will be loved. 

3. They will be loved. 



Future perfect tense. 



Plural, 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I will have been loved. 

2. You will have been Thou Wllt 2. You or ye will have been 

have been 



I. We will have been loved. 



loved. 
3. He will have been 



loved. 



loved. 



loved. 



3. They will have been loved. 
Potential Mode. 



Present tense. 



Singular. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I may be loved. 

2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 

Singular. 



Past tense. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I might be loved. 

2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 



Plural. 



Solemn style. 

Thou mayst 
be loved. 



1. We may be loved. 

2. You or ye may be loved. 

3. They may be loved. 



Plural. 



Solemn style. 

Thou mightst 
be loved. 



i. We might be loved. 

2. You or ye might be loved. 

3. They might be loved. 



Present perfect tense. 
Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. You may have been loved. Thou 2 . You or ye may have been 

mayst have 

been loved. loved « 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past perfect tens*. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I might have been loved. I. We might have been loved. 

2. You might have been loved. . ou 2. You, ye might have been 

& mightst , \ & 

have been loved « < 

3. He might have been loved, loved. 3- They might have been 

loved. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

The subjunctive form of the Subjunctive Mode is obsolescent, many 
of the best writers rejecting it and using only the indicative form. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If you be loved. If thou be loved. 2. If you, ye be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Past tense. 
Singular. . Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If you were loved. l ou wert 2. If you or ye were loved. 

loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I had been loved. I. If we had been loved. 

2. If you had been loved. If thou had 2. If you, ye had been loved. 

been loved. 

3. If he had been loved. 3. If they had been loved. 



Imperative Mode. 

Singular. Present tense. Plural. 

2. Be loved, or Be thou loved. 2. Be loved, or Be ye or you loved. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 141 



Infinitive Mode. 

Present. Perfect. 

To be loved. To have been loved. 



Participial Mode. 

Present. Past. Perfect. 

Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 



PROGRESSIVE STYLE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I am loving. I. We are loving. 

2. You are loving. Thou art loving. 2. You or ye are loving. 

3. He is loving. 3. They are loving. 

Past tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I was loving. I. We were loving. 

2. You were loving. Thou wert loving. 2. You or ye were loving. 

3. He was loving. 3. They were loving. 

Present perfect knse. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I have been loving. Th °u hast 1. We have been loving. 

2. You have been loving. e Jl n V^' 2. You, ye have been loving. 

3. He has been loving. been loving. 3- They have been loving. 



142 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I had been loving.. 

2. You had been loving. 

3. He had been loving. 



Solemn style. 

Thou hadst 
been loving. 



1. We had been loving. 

2. You, ye had been loving. 

3. They had been loving. 



Future tense. 



Singular. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I shall be loving. 

2. You will be loving. 

3. He will be loving. 



Solemn style. 

Thou wilt 
be loving. 



Plural. 

1. We shall be loving. 

2. You or ye will be loving. 

3. They will be long. 



Future perfect tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I shall have been loving. 1. We shall have been loving. 

2. You will have been loving. Thou wilt 2. You or ye will have been 

have been loving. 

3. He will have been loving. lovin g- 3. They will have been lov- 

ing. 

Potential Mode. 



Present tense. 



Singular. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I may be loving. 

2. You may be loving. 

3. He may be loving. 



Solemn style. 

Thou mayest 
be loving. 



Plural. 



1. We may be loving. 

2. You or ye may be loving. 

3. They may be loving. 



Singular. 



Past tense. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I might be loving. 

2. You might be loving. 

3. He might be loving. 



Solemn style. 

Thou mightst 
be loving. 



Plural. 



1. We might be loving. 

2. You or ye might be loving. 

3. They might be loving. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 143 

Present perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn sty-le. 

1. I may have been loving. Thou 1. We may have been loving. 

2. You may have been loving. ma > rst 2. You or ye may have been 

have 

been lovin g« 

3. He may have been loving. loving. 3. They may have been lov- 

ing. 
Past perfect tense. 
Singular. Plural* 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I might have been loving. 1. We might have been lov- 

Thou in g- 

2. You might have been lov- mightst 2. You or ye might have been 

ing. have been loving. 

3. He might have been lov- lovin &- 3. They might have been 

ing. loving. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural, 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I be loving. I. If we be loving. 

2. If you be loving. If thou be loving. 2. If you or ye be loving. 

3. If he be, loving. 3. If they be loving. 

Past tense. 
Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I were loving. I. If we were loving. 
Tr . If thou wert Tr - 

2. If you were loving. loving; 2 * ■" y ou or ^ e were loving. 

3. If he were loving. 3. If they were loving. 

Past perfect tense. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. If I had been loving. I. If we had been loving. 

2. If you had been loving, if thou had 2. If you or ye had been lov- 

been loving. ing. 

3. If he had been loving. 3. If they had been loving. 



144 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Imperative Mode. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be loving, or Do thou be loving. 2. Be loving, or Do ye or you 

be loving. 

Infinitive Mode. 

Present. Perfect. 

To be loving. To have been loving. 

Participial Mode. 



Present. Past. 
Being loving. 



Perfect. 
Having been loving. 



EMPHATIC STYLE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
Indicative Mode. 



Present tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary style. 

1. I do love. 

2. You do love. 

3. He does love. 



Solemn style. 

Thou dost love. 
He doth love. 



Past tense. 



Singular. 



1. We do love. « 

2. You or ye do love. 

3. They do love. 

Plural. 



Ordinary style. Solemn style. 

1. I did love. I. We did love. 

2. You did love. Thou didst love. 2. You or ye did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present tense. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Solemn style. 



Ordinary style. 

1. If I do love. 1. If we do love. 

2. If you do love. If thou dost love. 2. If you or ye do love. 

3. If he does love. If he doth love. 3. If they do love. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 

Past tense. 



145 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Solemn style. 



Ordinary style. 

1. If I did love. 1. If we did love. 

2. If you did love. If thou didst love. 2. If you or ye did love. 

3. If he did love. 3. If they did love. 



Imperative Mode. 



Singular. 
2. Do thou love. 



Present. 


Past. 


Abide, r. 


abode, 


Am or be, 


was, 


Arise, 


arose, 


Awake, r. 


awoke, 


Bear, 


bore or 




bare, 


Bear, 


bore or 




bare, 


Beat, 


beat, 


Begin, 


began or 




begun, 


Behold, 


beheld, 


Belay, r. 


belaid, 


Bend, r. 


bent, 


Bereave, r 


bereft, 


Beseech, r 


. besought, 


Beset, 


beset, 


Bet, r. 


bet, 


Betide, r. 


betid, 


Bid, 


bid or 




bade, 


Bide, r. 


bode, 


Bind, 


bound, 


Bite, 


bit, 


H. Gram. — 13. 



Past Partic. 

abode. 

been. 

arisen. 

awoke. 

born. 

borne. 

beaten or 

beat, 
begun. 

beheld. 

belaid. 

bent. 

bereft. 

besought. 

beset. 

bet. 

betid. 

bidden or 

bid. 
bode, 
bound, 
bitten or 

bit. 



t tense. 




Plural. 




2. 


Do ye love. 


id Redundant 


Verbs. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Partic. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blend, r. 


blent, 


blent. 


Bless, r. 


blessed, 


blessed. 


Blow, r. 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, r. 


built, 


built. 


Burn, r. 


burnt, 


burnt. 


Burst, r. 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, r. 


caught, 


caught. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden or 
chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, r. 


clave, 


clave. 


Cleave, 


cleft or 


cleft or 




clove, 


cloven. 


Climb, r. 


clomb, 


clomb. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, r. 


clad, 


clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


c.ost, 


cost. 


Creep, r. 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, r. 


crew, 


crowed. 



146 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Partic. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Partic. 


Curse, r. 


cursed, 


cursed. 


Hang, r. 


hung, 


hung. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Dare, r. 


durst, 


dared. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Deal, r. 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Heat, r. 


heat, 


heat. 


Dig, r. 


dug, 


dug. 


Heave, r. 


hove, 


hoven. 


Dive, r. 


dove, 


dove. 


Hew, r. 


hewed, 


hewn. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hidden. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Dream, r. 


dreamt, 


dreamt. 


Hold, 


held, 


held. 


Dress, r. 


drest, 


drest. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk or 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 






drank. 


Kneel, r. 


knelt, 


knelt. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Knit, r. 


knit, 


knit. 


Dwell, r. 


dwelt, 


dwelt. 


K now, 


knew, 


known. 


Eat, 


eat or ate 


eat or 


Lade, r. 


laded, 


laden. 






eaten. 


Lay, r. 


laid, 


laid. 


Engrave, t 


. engraved, 


engraven. 


Lead, 


led, 


led. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Lean, r. 


leant, 


leant. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 


Leap, r. 


leaped, 


leaped. 


Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Learn, r. 


learned, 


learned. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Lift, r. 


lift, 


lift. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Light, r. 


lit, 


lit. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgotten. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Freeze, r. 


froze, 


frozen. 


Mean, r. 


meant, 


meant. 


Freight, r. 


freighted, 


fraught. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Geld, r. 


gelt, 


gelt. 


Melt, r. 


melted, 


molten. 


Get, 


got, 


gotten. 


Mow, r. 


mowed, 


mown. 


Gild, r. 


gilt, 


gilt. 


Mulct, r. 


mulct, 


mulct. 


Gird, r. 


girt, 


girt. 


Pass, r. 


past, 


past. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Pay, r. 


paid, 


paid. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Pen, r. 


pent, 


pent. 


Grave, r. 


graved, 


graven. 


Plead, r. 


pled, 


pled. 


Grind, r. 


ground, 


ground. 


Prove, r. 


proved, 


proven. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE VERB. 



147 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Partic. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Partic. 


Quit, r. 


quit, 


quit. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Rap, r. 


rapt, 


rapt. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Slit, r. 


slit, 


slit. 


Reave, r. 


reft, 


reft. 


Smell, r. 


smelt, 


smelt. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Sow, r. 


sowed, 


sown. 


Ride, 


rode, 


rode or 


Speak, 


spoke or 


spoken or 






ridden. 




spake, 


spoke. 


Ring, 


rang, 


rung. 


Speed, r. 


sped, 


sped. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Spell, r. 


spelt, 


spelt. 


Rive, r. 


rived, 


riven. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Roast, r. 


roast, 


roast. 


Spill, r. 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Saw, r. 


sawed, 


sawn. 


Spit, 


spat, 


spit. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Split, r. 


split, 


split. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Spoil, r. 


spoilt, 


spoilt. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Seethe, r. 


sod, 


sodden. 


Spring, 


sprang, 


sprung. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Stave, r. 


. stove, 


stove. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Stay, r. 


staid, 


staid. 


Shake, r. 


shook, 


shaken. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Shape, r. 


shaped, 


shapen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Shave, r. 


shaved, 


shaven. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Shear, r. 


sheared, 


shorn. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Shed, r. 


shed, 


shed. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


strown or 


Shine, r. 


shone 


shone. 






strewn. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Stride* 


strode, 


stridden. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck or 


Show, r. 


showed, 


shown. 






stricken. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


String, r. 


strung, 


strung. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Strive, r. 


strove, 


striven. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Strow, r. 


strowed, 


strown. 


Sing, 


sang, 


sung. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sink, 


sank, 


sunk. 


Sweat, r. 


swet or 


swet or 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 




sweat, 


sweat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sweep, r. 


swept, 


swept. 


Sleep, r. 


slept, 


slept. 


Swell, r. 


swelled, 


swollen. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swum. 



148 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present, 


Past. 


Past Par tic '. 


Present. 


Past. 


PastPartic. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Weave, r. 


wove, 


woven. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Wed, r. 


wed, 


wed. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Weep, r. 


wept, 


wept. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Wet, r. 


wet, 


wet. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Whet, r. 


w T het, 


whet. 


Thrive, r. 


throve, 


thriven. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Throw, r. 


threw, 


thrown. 


Wind, r. 


wound, 


wound. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Wont, 


wont, 


wont. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden or 


Work, r. 


wrought, 


wrought. 






trod. 


Wreathe, r 


. wreathed, 


wreathen. 


Wake, r. 


woke, 


woke. 


Wring, r. 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Wax, r- 


waxed, 


waxen. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



Those verbs, in the preceding list, which are marked with an r, 
have also a regular conjugation. 

The pupil will consult a dictionary to determine whether the reg- 
ular or irregular form is most used. 



THE ADVERB. 



711. Definition. — An adverb is a word which limits a 
verb, adjective, or other adverb; as, He runs swiftly ; That 
rose is very beautiful; You read remarkably well. 

712. An adverb may limit a prepositional phrase used adverbially; 
as, He threw the stone ALMOST across the river ; Our class have gone 
NEARLY through arithinetic. 

713. Many adverbs are condensed expressions representing a 
phrase; as, The rain falls gently ; equivalent to, in a gentle ?nanner. 
The last is an adverbial phrase. 

714. In grammatical drill, all adverbial phrases should be fully 
analyzed and parsed word by word; as, They walked hand in hand; 
equivalent to, They walked [with] hand in hand. It is a mere shift 
to parse any expression as an adverbial phrase ; sometimes, an arti- 
fice, to conceal ignorance. 






ETYMOLOGY— THE ADVERB. 149 

715. Classes. — Adverbs are classified on two bases; first, 
as to their Signification ; second, as to their Function. 

716. As to signification, adverbs are divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : adverbs of Time, Place, Degree, Manner, and 
Illatio?i. 

717* Adverbs of time are subdivided as follows: 

(1) Of time when; as, Yesterday, lately, formerly, ago, etc. 

(2) Of time how long ; as, Suddenly, slowly, eternally, etc. 

(3) Of time how often; as, Frequently, repeatedly, daily, etc. 

718. Adverbs of place are subdivided as follows: 

(1) Of place in which; as, There, around, within. 

(2) Of place to which; as, Hither, thither, up, down, back, forth, 
etc. 

(3) Of place from which; as, Hence, thence, away, out, etc. 

(4) Of place through which; as, Midway, overland, etc. 

719* Adverbs of degree are subdivided as follows: 

(1) Of excess or abundance; as, Much, very, greatly, etc. 

(2) Of equality or sufficiency; as, Adequately, enough, sufficiently. 

720. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Little, hardly, scarcely, al- 
most. 

721. Adverbs of manner are subdivided as follows: 

(1) Of quality; as, Well, wisely, justly. 

(2) Of method ; as, Thus, somehow. 

(3) Of certainty ; as, Verily, truly, surely, indeed. 

(4) Of. doubt ; as, Perchance, mayhap. 

722. Of affirmation ; as, Yea, yes, aye, amen. 

723. Of negation; as, No, not, nowise. 

724. Adverbs of illation are subdivided as follows : 
(1) Of cause ; 



(2) Of reason ; 

(3) Of purpose ; 

(4) Of condition ; 



V as, Then, hence, therefore, wherefore, etc. 



Remark. — While single words, as adverbs, are used in all these dif- 
ferent classes of illation almost indiscriminately, phrases and clauses, 
as adverbial adjuncts, are used with much greater precision. 



ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

725. As to function, adverbs are divided into two classes : 
Modifying and Conjunctive. 

726. A modifying adverb is one which limits words or 
phrases without having any connecting power. 

727. A conjunctive adverb is one which introduces a 
subordinate sentence and modifies its verb ; as, We will know 
the truth when he returns. 

The common disposition of conjunctive adverbs which makes them 
modify two verbs, is faulty, and should be abandoned. 

In the sentence, I shall go when he arrives, ' go ' is modified by 
the sentence ' when he arrives ' as an adverb of time, while * when ' 
is its introductory connective. Now, if * when ' has any adverbial 
power, it must modify * arrives.' 

This disposition of the conjunctive adverb is plainly more simple 
and logical than to make the subordinate sentence ('he arrives') a 
modifier of that part of the conjunctive adverb ('when') which mod- 
ifies the preceding verb ('shall go'). 

728. The words most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs are 
when, where, while, whence, whither, so, as, because, till, until, since, 
therefore, hence, etc. 

729. Formation. — Adverbs are either primitives or de- 
rivatives. 

73 0« The primitives, as, Yes, no, here, there, etc., are few in number. 

73 1 - Many adverbs are formed by compounding other words; as, 
To-morrow, indeed, hereby, etc. 

732. Most adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives by add- 
ing ly ; as, Bright, bright-ly, glad, glad-ly. 

733- Many adverbs having the prefix a are contractions represent- 
ing a preposition and its object; as, Alive, formerly written On life ; 
Anew, formerly, Of new ; Abroad, equivalent to, On board. 

734- I n a f ew words, the prefix a is the article ; as, A while, equiv- 
alent to, A time. 

735- The prefix al, a contraction of all, is often used; as, always, 
alone, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE ADVERB. 151 

736. Modification — Comparison. 

737. Adverbs expressing quality, and some others, are 
compared like adjectives; as, often, oftener, oftenest ; soon, 
sooner, soonest ; far, farther, farthest. 

738. Many adverbs ending in ly are compared by the use 
of the adverbs ?nore and most ; as, gladly, moi'e gladly, most 
gladly. 

739. A few are compared irregularly; as, well, better, best; 
badly or ///, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; etc. 

740. Peculiarities of Adverbs. 

74 1- Many words used as adverbs are sometimes used as other 
parts of speech; thus, But is used (1) As an adverb; as, He sighed 
but once. (2) As a preposition ; as, None but the brave deserve the 
fair. (3) As a conjunction; as, He called, but no one answered. 

742. Sometimes adverbs are used apparently as the adjuncts of 
nouns and pronouns ; as, I alone am responsible ; God only is good ; 
really, the adverb limits some other word expressed or understood ; 
as, God [of all beings] only is wise; I am alone responsible. 'Alone' 
is here to equivalent to 'exclusively.' 

743* A few adverbs are used independently ; as, Yes, no, amen, 
etc. In such cases, these words are equivalent to a whole sentence. 
Did he go? No. 'No' is parsed as an adverb of negation, qual- 
ifying the verb did go understood, in the answer of the question. 

744* The is sometimes used adverbially ; as in the sentence, The 
faster he runs the slower he goes. 

745- f ne adverb ' as ' is not unfrequently used to introduce 
abridged sentences where the conjunction ' that ' would be used to 
introduce the corresponding complete sentence; as, They make their 
boast of crimes as having done them secretly; They make their boast 
of crimes that they have done them secretly. 

74^. ' As ' is used also as a preposition ; as, I like him as a teacher ; 
also as a relative pronoun ; Such as I have, I give unto thee. 

Adverbs of the second and third classes must be parsed as to their 
signification. Example : He went to bathe. ' To bathe ' is an adverb 
of purpose, and limits ' went.' 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

747. Definition. — A preposition is a word which ex- 
presses the relation between elements of thought. Explana- 
tion : The latter element, when the object of the relation 
expressed by the preposition, is called the object of the 
preposition, and is generally a noun or pronoun; the former 
element is called the antecedent term of the relation. 

748. Classes — As to Use — As to Formation. 

749. As to use, prepositions may be divided into numer- 
ous classes. The following are some of the most distinctive : 
those representing relations of Place, Time, Agent or Instru- 
ment, and Cause. 

75°- Prepositions showing the relations of place, are subdivided 
into two classes : 

75 *• Of rest in or by a place; as, In, within, besides. 

752. Of motion to or from ; as, Into, toward, from. 

753* Prepositions showing the relations of time are subdivided 
into two classes: 

754- Of time definite ; as, At: He came at noon. 

755- Of time indefinite ; as, Before, after, etc. 

756. Prepositions showing miscellaneous relations, such as aver- 
sion, substitution, opposition, etc., are not easily classified on logical 
bases. 

757. As to formation, prepositions are divided into three 
classes : Simple, Compound, and Complex. 

Remark. — In this classification, simple means consisting of a single 
word ; compound means compounded of two prepositions ; as, Out of, 
from between, etc.; and complex refers to prepositions compounded of 
a preposition and some other part or parts of speech ; as, On account 
of, to the extent of, etc. 



ETYMOLOGY— THE PREPOSITION. 

758. Alphabetical List of Prepositions. 

759* Simple Prepositions: 



153 



a, 


athwart, 


in, 




save, 


abaft, 


before, 


into, 




saving, 


aboard, 


behind, 


like, 




till, 


about, 


below, 


mauger, 




to, 


above, 


beneath, 


near, 




touching, 


across, 


beside, 


next, 




toward, 


adown, 


besides, 


nigh, 




towards, 


after, 


between, 


notwithstanding, under, 


against, 


betwixt, 


of, 




underneath, 


along, 


beyond, 


off, 




unlike, 


amid, 


but, 


on, 




until, 


amidst, 


by, 


opposite, 




unto, 


among, 


concerning, 


over, 




up, 


amongst, 


despite, 


past, 




upon, 


an ear, 


during, 


pending, 




versus, 


around, 


ere, 


per, 




via, 


as, 


except, 


respecting, 




with, 


aslant, 


excepting, 


round, 




within, 


astride, 


far, 


since, 




without. 


at, 


from, 








760. Compound prepositions : 








aboard of, 


but for, 


from off, 




out of, 


as for, 


from among, 


from under 




over against. 


as to, 


from between, 








761. Complex prepositions : 








according to, 


in place 


of, 


with respect to, 


contrary to, 


in respect to, 


in 


the relation of, 


devoid of, 


on account of, 


in 


the character of, 


in consideration 


of, previous 


to, 


to 


the extent of, etc, 


instead of, 


in spite 


of, 


regardless of. 



Remark. — Many words in the above list are used as other parts 
of speech. 

762. Peculiarities of Prepositions. 

763. For is used to introduce abridged infinitive clauses ; as, For 
us to venture would be madness ; For him to assist me would be im- 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

possible : equivalent to, That he should assist me would be impossible. 
The expanded form of such sentences with the finite verb, instead 
of the infinitive, is introduced by the conjunction that. 

764. A is used as a preposition in such expressions as, He went 
a fishing; She has gone a riding. 

765. In such passive forms as cast up, thrown off, sneered at, etc., 
the participles 'up,' 'off,' 'at,' etc., are considered as parts of the 
verb. Prepositions are often thus used to form the passive voice with 
intransitive verbs; as, She was laughed at; The farm has been taken 
possession of by the sheriff. 

766. Save and except were formerly verbs in the imperative mode, 
but should not now be so construed. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

767. Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to con- 
nect words, phrases, and sentences ; as, John and Mary will 
go ; The army was reduced by famine and by disease ; Crom- 
well fought and Charles bled; Cicero was an orator, but 
Virgil was a poet. 

768. Classes. — Conjunctions are classified on two bases; 
first, as to Rank ; second, as to Signification, 

769. As to rank, conjunctions are Co-ordinate and Subor- 
dinate. 

' 770. A co-ordinate conjunction connects sentences or 
elements of equal rank ; as, Henry went, but George staid 
away ; James is a studious and intelligent boy. 

771. A subordinate conjunction connects elements of 
unequal rank ; as, He fled because his life was in danger ; I 
will come if possible. 

772. As to signification, conjunctions are Copulative and 
Disjunctive, 



ETYMOLOGY— THE CONJUNCTION. 



J 55 



773. A copulative conjunction simply connects the mean- 
ing of phrases or sentences ; as, The moon shines and the 
wind blows. 

774. A disjunctive conjunction connects words, phrases, 
or sentences, yet indicates alternative, adversative, or anti- 
thetic meaning; as, He will go or stay : The shop was burned, 
but the house was saved. 



Remark. — These classes may be divided into various subclasses; 
as, Correlative, Introductory, Final, Causal, Temporal, Illative, Con- 
cessive, etc. 

775. List of Conjunctions. 

776. Co-ordinate Conjunctions. 



again, 


but, 


moreover, 


otherwise, 


also, 


either, 


nay, 


so, 


although, 


else, 


neither, 


still, 


and, 


further, 


nor, 


though, 


besides, 


furthermore, 


now, 


yet. 


both, 


likewise, 


or, 




777* Subordinate Conjunctions. 






after, 


howsoever, 


provided, 


thus, 


as, 


howbeit, 


since, 


unless, 


as well as, 


if, 


than, 


when, 


because, 


inasmuch as, 


then, 


while, 


except, 


in case, 


that, 


whilst, 


for, 


but, 


therefore, 


wherefore. 


however, 


notwithstanding, 







77& Conjunctions are often used to introduce independent sen- 
tences ; as, And they said there is no hope: Jer. xviii. 12; Therefore 
thus saith the Lord : id. xviii. 13. 

779. That is often used to introduce a sentence which is the sub- 
ject of a finite verb; as, That they should be mistaken is not im- 
probable. In such cases, that is a conjunction in form only, being 
really an introductory expletive. 

See Rule 24. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

780. Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs ; as, 

both — and, though, or al- as — so, nor — nor, 

either — or, though — yet, or if — then, so — that, 

neither — nor, nevertheless. or — or, so — as. 

whether — or, as — as, 

781. And sometimes unifies the two elements of a fact; as, To 
indulge in idleness and make a business of it is not the road to ruin — 
it is ruin. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

782. Definition. — An interjection is a word uttered as 
the expression of an emotion; as, O Absalom! Pshaw! 
what a blunder ! 

783. Remark i. — Interjections are most frequently used in con- 
versation. They seldom occur in ordinary prose or poetry, except 
when the writer is addressing an individual or an object personified. 
They have no grammatical connection with any other word in a sen- 
tence. 

784. Remark 2. — is the sign of the vocative or nominative ab- 
solute by direct address. O is common to most languages. 

785. Remark 3. — As to signification, the classes of interjections 
are as numerous as the emotions of the human soul. 

786. List of Interjections. 



ah, 


hurra, 




hail, 


lo, 


aha, 


huzza, 




bravo, 


behold, 


alas, 


hist, 




tush, 


come, 


O, 


ho, 




pooh, 


away, 


oh, 


hush, 




pshaw, 


what, 


ha, 


heigh- 


ho, 


fie, 


strange, etc, 



hark, heyday, avaunt, 

Note. — Some of these are used as other parts of speech, partic- 
ularly as verbs in the imperative mode. 



ETYxMOLOGY— PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 157 

DRILL IN VARIOUS CONSTRUCTIONS. 

APPOSITION AND PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 

787. Recitation — Lesson previously assigned. 

788. Apposition. — Teacher. " Pupils, I wish to give you, to- 
day, another construction of nouns and pronouns. For example, in 
the sentence, * Mr. Jones, the farmer, was elected to the legislature,' 
the noun 'farmer' is used to explain the noun * Jones,' and is parsed 
thus : Farmer is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, nom- 
inative, in apposition with * Mr. Jones,' Rule 13, A noun or personal 
pronoun limiting another noun or pronoun, signifying the same person 
or thing, is in the same case, by apposition. 

"You have learned that nouns are limited by adjectives, also by 
nouns and pronouns in the possessive case. This new construction of 
limitation is called, simply, apposition, and may limit a noun or pro- 
noun in any case. In the example, * This belongs to John, him whom 
you saw yesterday,' the pronoun 'him' is used to explain the noun 
'John,' and is parsed thus: Him is a pronoun, personal, agreeing 
with its antecedent, 'John,' in the third, singular, masculine, Rule 5, 
objective case, in apposition with 'John,' Rule 13. You will notice 
that there can be no other construction for this word." 

1. Adolphus, the heroic lad, saved his drowning brother, 
Augustine. 

2. Johann Strauss, the musical composer, was at the Bos- 
ton Jubilee. 

3. Charles Santley, the great baritone, sings in Mendels- 
sohn's Oratorio, "Elijah." 

4. Winter, the hoary-headed sage, retreats before the 
youthful Spring. 

5. We hail thee, Columbia, the land of the free. 

6. He has just gone to my friend, the attorney's, office. 

7. Mr. Jones, the banker's team, ran away and broke his 
carriage. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. Where did that come from? From Mr. Carpenter's, 
my neighbor across the street. 

Teacher. "You will notice, by the sixth, seventh, and eighth sen- 
tences, that in cases of a possessive in apposition, the sign is used 
only with that possessive which immediately precedes the noun lim- 
ited. In the sentence, ' He has just gone to my friend, the attorney's, 
office,' the noun * friend ' is in the possessive case, limiting 'office,' 
while 'attorney's' is in apposition with 'friend,' and takes the sign, 
because nearest to the limited noun. 'Where did that come from? 
From Mr. Carpenter's, my neighbor across the street.' We mean in 
this, 'From Mr. Carpenter's house.' 'Mr. Carpenter's,' then, is in the 
possessive, limiting 'house,' and has the sign, because nearest the 
governed noun. 'Neighbor' is in apposition with 'Mr. Carpenter's.' 

"I wish you to parse the nouns in apposition, in the preceding 
sentences. This will be a part of your next lesson. How many think 
they can do it?" 

Some are doubtful. 

Teacher. "Jane, you may try the first one now. Which is it?" 
Jane. " Heroic." 

Hands are up. 

Teacher. "What is it, Henry?" 

Hemy. "Heroic is an adjective; lad is the word." 

Teacher. "Very well. Jane, you may parse 'lad.'" 
Jane. "Lad is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, nom- 
inative, in apposition with 'Adolphus,' Rule 13." 

Teacher. "Very well, Jane. Julia, you may parse 'Augustine,' 
in the same sentence." 

Julia. " Augitstine is a noun, proper, third, singular, masculine, 
objective, in apposition with 'brother,' Rule 13." 

789. Predicate Nominative. — Teacher. " Pupils, there is 
one other construction that you may study to-day. Who will parse 
'bucket,' in the following sentence?" 

i. Jane draws a bucket of water from the well. 

All hands are up. 

Teacher. "Charles." 

Charles. "Bucket is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, ob- 
jective, object of the transitive verb 'draws,' Rule 17, The object of 
a transitive verb in the active voice must be in the objective case." 



ETYMOLOGY— PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 159 

Teacher. "Very good. Mary, you may parse 'statesman' in the 
next sentence." 

2. The diligent student became a wise statesman. 

Mary. " Statesman is a noun, common, third, singular, mascu- 
line, 1 don't know what case, unless it is the objective; but I 

think 'became' is an intransitive verb." 

Teacher. "Yes; became is intransitive, and can not take an ob- 
ject. According to our rule, only TRANSITIVE verbs in the ACTIVE 
voice require the objective case to limit them. Before I explain this 
I will ask James to parse 'Fanny,' in the third sentence." 

3. The girl was named Fanny. 

James. "Fanny is a noun, proper, third, singular, feminine 

This verb is transitive, but it is in the passive voice, so it can not 
govern the objective case." 

Teacher. " Right. You have now before you the two forms of 
the verb, which can not govern an object. They are followed im- 
mediately by words which refer to the same thing as the subject. 
1 Fanny ' and ' girl ' refer to the same person or thing ; ' student ' and 
'statesman,' in the second sentence, are the same person. These 
words, ' statesman ' and ' Fanny,' are said to be Predicate Nominatives, 
or nominatives in the predicate, because they are predicated or as- 
serted of their subjects. You may now turn to page 187. All watch 
closely, while Susan reads the 14th Rule." 

Susan (reading). "The predicate noun or pronoun with an intransi- 
tive or passive verb, referring to the same thing as its subject, must be 
in the same case." 

Teacher. "I will now parse the word 'Fanny,' in the third sen- 
tence. Fanny is a noun, proper, third, singular, feminine, being in 
the predicate with the passive verb 'was named,' and referring to 
the same thing as 'girl,' the subject of the verb, Rule 14. 

"Mary, you may now try again to parse the word 'statesman,' 
in the sentence, 'The diligent student became a wise statesman?" 

Mary. " Statesman is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, 
nominative, being in the predicate with the intransitive verb 'be- 
came,' and referring to the same thing as 'student,' the subject of 
the verb, Rule 14." 

Teacher. "Well done, Mary. I will now assign some words in 
the following sentences, for your next parsing lesson." 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i. The convention was generally considered a failure. 

2. London is the largest city in Europe. 

3. The speaker was called an enthusiast. 

4. William has been a farmer, but is now a merchant. 

5. James will be the neatest writer in the class. 

Teacher. " These words, in connection with those assigned in Ap- 
position, will be sufficient for your next recitation. How many think 
they can parse all the words of this lesson ? " 

All hands up but one. 

Teacher. "What is it, Jane?" 

Jane. "I would like one more example; 'writer/ in the last sen- 
tence." 

Teacher. "Who will try it?" 

Hands up. 

Teacher. "Henry." 

Henry. " Writer is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, 
nominative, being in the predicate with 'will be,' and referring to 
the same thing as 'James,' the subject of the verb, Rule 14." 



SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE— PREDICATE 
OBJECTIVE. 

790. Recitation — Correction of False Syntax, and 
Written Parsings. 

791. Drill on the Subject of the Infinitive. — Teacher. 

"Pupils, I have a new construction for the subject of a verb. You 
will give me your close attention, won't you ? In the sentence, * He 
wished that the boys should depart? what are the case and construction 
of the noun * boys'? All together." 

Class. "Nominative, subject of the verb ' should depart.'" 
Teacher. "Right: no7ninative, subject of the finite verb * should de- 
part.' Let me change, or abridge the sentence, thus: * He wished 
the boys to departs You see very plainly he did not wish the boys, 
but their action, as expressed in the verb ' to depart.' Since this is 
the case, * boys' is as much the subject of the verb * depart,' now as 



ETYMOLOGY— PREDICATE OBJECTIVE. 161 

before when the verb was finite. But observe that the case of the 
noun has changed, as well as the mode of the verb. In the sentence 
with the infinitive, 'He wished the boys to depart f 'boys' is in the 
objective case, subject of the infinitive 'to depart.' You will see this 
more clearly if a pronoun be substituted for the noun 'boys.' Thus: 
'He wished them to depart.' Here the objective form must be used; 
for we could not say, 'He wished they to depart.' We have, then, 
Rule 16. You will find it on page 189. Julia, you may read the first 
part of the Rule." 

Julia (reading). " The subject of the infinitive is com?nonly in the ob- 
jective case." 

Teacher. "It is always so, when the subject is expressed, and is 
different from the subject of the leading, finite verb. For example, 
' He desired me to go.' He and me represent very different persons. 
But if the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the 
f?iite verb, on which the infinitive depends, then the subject of the 
infinitive is not again expressed, but is in the nominative case. For 
example: 'He purposed to run in the races.' The subject of the in- 
finitive 'to run,' is 'he,' the subject of the leading verb 'purposed.'" 

i. Let him enter my presence. 

2. Permit the birds to come and sing for us, though they 
do eat the cherries, 

3. Do you not see the creature move? 

4. Let others speak your praises. 

5. A moment ago I saw James go through the gate. 

6. I wish to visit New York City this year. 

7. The farmer prepares to harvest his grain, not now with 
grain-cradles, but by horse-power. 

8. Did you see her play on the piano ? 

9. I felt the slimy creature touch me. 

10. James, I desire you to help me harvest to-morrow. 

Teacher. "I will parse 'him,' in the sentence, 'Let him enter 
my presence.' Him is a pronoun, personal, agreeing with its antece- 
dent, the person spoken of, in the third, singular, masculine, Rule 5, 
objective, the subject of the infinitive 'enter,' Rule 16; the sign to 
being omitted, according to Rule 21, The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, 

hear, let, make, need, see, and some others of similar signification, take 
H. Gram. — 14. 



1 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the infinitive after t/iem without the sign to.' How many think they 
can now parse the subjects of infinitives?" 

Susan seems doubtful. 

Teacher. " Susan, you may try one. Take ' birds,' in the second 
sentence, remembering that there are two infinitives here, ' to come ' 
and * to sing.' " 

Susan. " Birds is a noun, common, third, plural, objective, sub- 
ject of the infinitives * to come' and 'to sing,' Rule 16." 

Teacher. " Well done, Susan. Notice, class, that the sign to is 
omitted in several of the preceding sentences, according to Rule 21. 
The subject of the infinitive in the sixth and seventh sentences is in 
the nominative case, as I have explained to you." 

792. Drill on the Predicate Objective. — i. James is 
a good scholar. 

2. His father desired him to be an obedient boy. 

3. They wish her to be named Mary. 

Teacher. "In studying the Predicate Objective, you will first bring 
to mind two principles you have already studied. I will ask John to 
rise and parse 'scholar' in the sentence, 'James is a good scholar?" 
John. " Scholar is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, 
being in the predicate with the intransitive verb 'is,' and referring to the 
same thing as the subject, 'James,' Rule 14." 

Teacher. "Sarah, you may parse 'him,' in the sentence, * His 
father desired him to be an obedient boy.' " 

Sarah. "Him is a pronoun, personal, agreeing with its antecedent, 
the person spoken of, in the third, singular, masculine, Rule 5, ob- 
jective case, subject of the infinitive ' to be? Rule 16." 

Teacher. "The Rule which John just used says: ' The predicate 
noun or pronoun with an intransitive or passive verb, referring to the 
same thing as its subject, must be in the same case? So 'scholar' was 
parsed as in the same case with 'James,' because referring to the 
same thing. Since 'to be ' is intransitive, the noun ' boy ' must be 
in the objective case, because the subject 'him,' referring to the same 
thing, is in the objective. 

"I will parse ' Mary,' in the sentence, 'They wish her to be named 
Mary.' Mary is a noun, proper, third, singular, feminine, objective, 
in the predicate with the passive verb 'to be named,' referring to the 
same thing as 'her,' subject of the verb, Rule 14. Charles, you may 



ETYMOLOGY— DOUBLE RELATIVES. 163 

parse 'boy,' in the sentence, * His father desired him to be an obe- 
dient boy.' " 

Charles. "Boy is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, ob- 
jective, in the predicate with the intransitive verb 'to be,' referring 
to the same thing as 'him,' the objective subject of the verb, Rule 

i 4 ." 

Teacher. " Very well. For the next recitation you may parse the 
words I will now indicate." 

4. Astronomers suppose the stars to be suns, and these 
to be centers of planetary systems. 

5. If you wish your work to become a pleasure, give it 
your best time and efforts. 

6. We believe Mary to be a kind girl at home. 

7. His friends wished him to become a physician. 

8. James desired his favorite pony to be called "Tom 
Thumb." 

9. We thought you to be them who promised not to dis- 
turb us. 

10. They declared me to be him who frightened them. 



DOUBLE RELATIVE. 

793. Recitation — Written Parsings. 

794. Drill in the Double Relative. — Teacher. "Pupils, 

who will give me the interrogative pronouns?" 

All hands up. 

Teacher. "Charles." 

Charles. "Who, which, and what." 

Teacher. "Right. Who and which, as you remember, are relatives 
when not used interrogatively. You have not yet learned the rela- 
tive character of what. All the words you have parsed thus far have 
had but one construction. But the pronoun ' what ' has two construc- 
tions, and for this reason is called a Double Relative. I will try to 
explain this to you by the use of examples." 



1 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i. Pay me what thou owest. 

2. She was frightened by what she saw. 

3. The multitude were pleased with what was said. 

4. What the majority may accept will be approved. 

Teacher. " You will notice very carefully the form of parsing double 
relatives. I will parse 'what,' in the first sentence, 'Pay me what 
thou owest.' But first I will give the equivalent expression, contain- 
ing 'what,' separated into its parts. 'Pay me that [thing] which thou 
owest.' That is an adjective, limiting 'thing,' understood; but ordi- 
narily we omit 'that,' and parse the noun 'thing,' to which 'that' 
relates, and which has the case and construction needed in this rela- 
tion. Thus : What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent to thing 
which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a noun, common, third, sin- 
gular, neuter, objective, object of the verb 'pay,' Rule 17. Which, 
the relative part, is a pronoun, relative, agreeing with its antecedent 
'thing,' in third, singular, neuter, Rule 5, objective, object of the 
verb 'owest,' Rule 17. 

"Julia, you may parse 'what,' in the fourth sentence, 'What the 
majority may accept will be approved,' first reading the sentence with 
'what' analyzed." 

Julia. " ' That [thing] which the majority may accept will be ap- 
proved.' What is a pronoun, relative, double, equivalent to thing 
which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a noun, common, third, sin- 
gular, neuter, nominative, subject of the verb 'will be approved,' 
Rule 15. Which, the relative part, is a pronoun, relative, agreeing 
with its antecedent 'thing,' in the third, singular, neuter, Rule 5, 
objective, object of the transitive verb 'may accept,' Rule 17." 

Teacher. "Julia, you have done very well. The class may parse, 
for the next recitation, all the double relatives in the first four sentences 
of this lesson. 

"I wish now to guard you against a possible error. Take the sen- 
tence, ' He asked me what was said.' Here, ' what ' is not a double rel- 
ative, but an interrogative pronoun. The sense is this : He asked me — 
What was said? 

"In the following sentences, 'what' is an interrogative pronoun, 
not a double relative. You can distinguish between ' what ' as a double 
relative, and as an interrogative, by use of the sign ever. Ever may 
be used with the double relative without marring the sense, but can 
not be so used with the interrogative 'what.' You can say, 'Pay me 



ETYMOLOGY— NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 165 

whatever thou owest ' ; but the sense is marred by saying, * No man 
can tell whatever will be in the future.' " 

i. No man can tell what will be in the future. 

2. Who knows what was paid for that property? 

3. I know what you want. 

4. I can tell what is needed there. 

5. I know what was the occasion of the accident 

Teacher. "In addition to what I have already assigned, you may 
parse the words I will now ask you to mark.' , 



NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 



795. Recitation — Parsing Double Relatives and 
Interrogatives. 

796. Nominative Independent or Absolute. — Teacher. 

"In the sentence, 'James, you may go to school,' what is the con- 
struction of ' James ' ? Who can tell ? " 

No hands up. 

Teacher. " We have had no such construction in any previous les- 
son. 'James' is not a part of the sentence, but is simply the name 
of the person to whom the sentence is addressed. For this reason 
'James' is said to be itidependent, or absolute, and is in the nomina- 
tive case. I will parse it. James is a noun, proper, third, singular, 
masculine, nominative absolute by direct address, according to Rule 
22 : A noun or pronoun, independent of sentential structure, is in the 
nominative absolute. I will give further examples." 

i. The work being completed, we received full pay. 

2. My stars ! Jane, you frightened me. 

3. The moon and the stars, they are His handiwork. 

4. The distance to the sun having been computed, other 
measurements were easily made. 

5. O Lord, thou art my rock. 

6. The enemy, they shall be overwhelmed. 



i66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. My eyes! that was a blinding flash of lightning. 

8. The ground being prepared, the farmer sows his grain. 

9. Cincinnati, Ohio. 

10. "McGuffey's Fifth Reader. " 

Teacher. " These sentences contain five constructions of the nom- 
inative absolute. I will give them, with other examples, as I wish 
you afterward to select the same constructions in the preceding sen- 
tences." 

1. With a participle ; as, The co?npany having arrived, we all sat 
down to tea. 

2. By exclamation; as, O mercy! what shall I do ? 

3. By direct address ; as, Friends, I beseech you, hear me. 

4. By pleonasm ; as, The tyrants, they shall be slain. 

5. By inscription; as, Boston, Mass.; "Home, sweet home." 

Teacher. " How many think they can now find the similar con- 
structions in the previous sentences?" 

All hands are up. 

Teacher. "If you have any doubt about a particular construction, 
you can compare it with the examples given above to illustrate the 
absolute constructions. 

" Co?npany is in the nominative absolute with the participle 'having 
arrived.' 

"Mercy is in the nominative absolute by exclamation. 

" Friends is in the nominative absolute by direct address. 

" Tyrants is in the nominative absolute by pleonasm. 

"Words or phrases which stand alone, as the inscriptions of letters, 
the titles of books, the captions of music, etc., are in the nominative 
absolute by inscription. 

x i The construction by pleonas?n is proper only when special em- 
phasis is to be given to the noun so used. Jane, you may now try 
to parse 'work,' in the first sentence, 'The work being completed, 
we received full pay.' " 

Jane. "Work is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, in the 
nominative absolute with the participle 'being completed,' Rule 22." 

Teacher. "Very good. Henry, you may parse 'moon,' in the 
sentence, 'The moon and the stars, they are His handiwork. ' " 

Henry. "Moon is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter, in the 
nominative absolute by pleonasm, Rule 22." 



PART THREE. 

SYNTAX. 

797. Rule I.— Articles limit nouns; adjectives, nouns 
and pronouns; as, The river; A white hat; I miserable am 
undone. 

Remark. — The word limit simply signifies to modify tJie meaning of, 

798. Articles — Position. — The article is always placed before 
the noun it limits. 

799- When an adjective is used with the noun, the article usually 
precedes the adjective ; as, A beautiful picture. 

800. The article follows the adjectives all, such, many, both, and 
what; also any adjective preceded by the adverbs too, as, so, how; 
as, How great an opportunity was presented to all the soldiers ; What 
a fool he was to squander so large an inheritance ; Toward such a 
one too great an enmity was displayed. 

8oi. Use. — Common nouns in the singular number require a 
or an when used indefinitely ; as, A man. 

802. Common nouns, either singular or plural, require the when 
used definitely; as, The house; The trees. 

803. The article is omitted before : 

804. Proper names, and titles used merely as titles ; as, Carnot is 
president of the French republic; They called him Squire. 

805. When proper names are applied to a class of nouns, the ar- 
ticle is used; as, Charles II. was a Stuart. 

806. Names of mountain ranges, rivers, islands, etc., excepting 
names of lakes, take the article ; as, The Alps, The Amazon, The 
Azores. 

(167) 



1 68 EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 

807. Xames of the arts, sciences, virtues, rices, passions, and ab- 
stract names ; as, Geology unfolds the records of the past ages ; Cka r- 
iiy is not puffed up; Hope deferred maketh the heart sick. 

808. Names of months, days of the week, holidays, festivals, etc, 
unless used definitely ; as, When March, just ready to depart, begins 
to soften into April; Friday is called hangman's day. 

809. Xames so obviously definite as not to require it ; as, Gentle- 
mat at large are those who have no especial occupation. 

\ 5 
oIO. When two or more adjectives refer to the same noun, the 

article is used with the first only; as, A red and white ribbon; bat 

when the adjectives refer to different nouns, the article is used with 

each; as, A black and a white hat. 

811. When two or more noons are connected by and, the article 
is commonly used with the first only; as, The boys and girls study 
together; but when they are connected disjunctively, the article is 
used with each; as, The boys or the girls will go. 

812. When two or more nouns limit another noun in apposition, 
the article is used with the first noun only; as, Jones, the painter 
and glazier. But when the epithets refer to different persons, the ar- 
ticle is used with each; as Jones, the painter and the glazier. 

813. In comparisons where both words refer to the same person 
or thing, the article is used with the first only; as, He is a better 

z:t:..':-: :":.:: :::.:::. " • t- -/---. : - "-; -_: :;--:t": ;t: r:r_«. :: :- -ti 
with both ; as, The mother is a better nurse than a daughter [would 

■-o 

814. The article a is used before few, hundred, thousand, etc, with 
nouns in the plural ; as, A few men ; A hundred dollars. 

In such cases ' a ' can be parsed as giving a collective sense to the 

: lurzl t:.\ :t - :~. 

8 15- A before few and little gives an affirmative meaning to an 
expression : as, A few have complied- When a is omitted such sen- 
tences become negative : as. Few have complied. A is also used after 
many, to denote plurality; as, Many a mile. 

816. The article the is used before a common noun in the singu- 
lar, to denote a class; as, The elm; The vine; The article, where 
the classes are designated instead of individuals. 



SYNTAX. 169 

817. Adjectives — Position. — The adjective is placed before its 
noun, excepting : 

818. When in the predicate: as, The apple is sweet. 

819. When other words depend on it; as, A cause worthy to be 
defended will not lack defenders. 

820. When the adjective denotes the result of a verb's action ; 
as, Vice makes men miserable. 

Remark. — This is really a case of predication ; as, Vice makes men 
[to be] miserable. 

821. When limiting pronouns; as, I wretched know not where to fly. 

822. When a verb comes between the noun and the adjective; 
as, The vessel rides buoyant on the deep. In such cases the adjective 
is generally the attribute of the sentence. 

823. In many instances the adjective may either precede or fol- 
low the noun ; as, A wise and pi-udcnt statesman ; or, A statesman 

and pj-udent. 

824. In the arrangement of two or more adjectives limiting the 
same noun, if preceding it, the most generic (or most unchangeable) 
must be placed nearest the noun, and the most specific farthest from 
it ; but when the limiting adjectives follow the noun, the order may 
be reversed ; as, That nice young man ; not, That young nice man ; 
That magnificent old cathedral ; An interrogative pronominal adjec- 
tive ; That beautiful, accomplished, intelligent young lady; again, 
My young friend, so beautiful, accomplished, and intelligent ; or, My 
friend, so young, intelligent, accomplished, and beautiful, is dead. 

825. Numeral and pronominal adjectives precede other adjectives 
which modify the same noun ; as, The ten great religions ; That noble 
character. 

826. The numerals, one, two, three, four, etc., when used with first 
or last, may be placed either before or after them ; as, The two first 
lines: The last two lines. When the numerals represent large num- 
bers, the words first and last are placed before them ; as, The first fifty 
pages. 

Remark. — In the use of adjectives, that order should be adopted 

which is the most natural, expressive, and euphonious. 
H. Gram. — 15. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

827. Construction. — Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns, 
and those denoting number must agree with the word limited; as, 
This book ; These books ; That man ; Those men ; One ox ; Five oxen. 

828. Use. — When an adjective limits two or more nouns con- 
nected by and, it is used with the first, and understood with the 
rest ; as, Great zeal and energy were displayed in the undertaking. 

829- The adjective in the predicate limits its noun in the subject ; 
as, God is good ; The column stands fimi. 

Remark. — Most intransitive verbs take an adjective in the pred- 
icate; as, The apple tastes sour; The river twos deep; The fog hangs 
low and thick ; The clouds look beautiful (not beautifully'). In expres- 
sions where an intransitive verb is used with a predicate adjective, 
the verb and adjective are equivalent to the verb to be, with an ad- 
junct and an adjective; as, The apple tastes sour; equivalent to, The 
apple is sour in its taste. 

830. An adjective sometimes limits another adjective ; as, A deep 
blue color ; A light brown tint. 

831. An adjective and another word sometimes form a compound 
adjective ; as, A bright-eyed child. 

832. In the so-called independent or indefinite use of the adjec- 
tive, a noun is understood in the abridged phrase, and the adjective 
is plainly an attribute or predicate adjective. For example, in the 
sentence To be good is to be happy, ' good ' and ' happy ' limit the 
noun person understood. The sentence with the ellipses supplied may 
read thus : [For a person] to be good is [for him] to be happy ; or, 
expanded : That a person is good, is that he is happy. 

833* When the conjunction than is used to express comparison be- 
tween two or more objects, the comparative of the adjective is used ; 
as, Henry is taller than James ; He is taller than any of his comrades. 
The comparative is also used when the amount or degree of differ- 
ence is stated ; as, This load is heavier by ten pounds ; and by some 
speakers and writers when two objects are compared without than ; as, 
This pen is the better of the two. 

834. The superlative is used when a comparison is made between 
two or more objects without the conjunction than; as, Susan is the 
most studious of the two ; He is the best boy in school ; Of the two 
epic poets, Homer and Virgil, Homer was the most original. 



SYNTAX. 171 

835* The latter term of the comparison must exclude the former 
when the comparative is used ; as, The United States is more powerful 
than any other republic. 

836. The latter term of comparison must include the former when 
the superlative is used ; as, Texas is the largest State in the Union ; 
not, The largest State of all others. 

837* When the pronominals this and that are used in comparison 
or contrast, this refers to the circumstance last mentioned, that to the 
circumstance first mentioned ; as, Intemperance and idleness are in- 
separable ; this effeminates the body, that destroys both body and soul. 
Former, latter ; the one, the other, are similarly used. 

838. The reciprocals each and other refer to two objects only ; as, 
They exhorted each other to be steadfast ; equivalent to, They each 
[person] exhorted the other [person] to be steadfast. But one another 
refers to two objects or more than two ; as, They envied one another; 
equivalent to, They one [person] envied the other [person or persons]. 

839* The pronominals each, either, neither, and one always take a 
verb in the singular number ; as, Each denies the fact ; Neither reads 
well ; If any one of you thinks differently, he may raise his hand. 

840. Either properly refers to one of two, but according to good 
authority may mean one of several ; as, If, from a point within a tri- 
angle, two straight lines are drawn to the extremities of either side, 
etc. 

841. Misuse. — The following errors frequently occur in the use 
of adjectives: 

842. In position; as, A new pair of boots; A black lady's glove; 
A rattan gentleman's cane. 

843* In the use of adverbs for adjectives; as, They escaped safely; 
She looks beautifully this evening. 

844. In the use of adjectives for adverbs; as, He reads good; The 
winds blew wild. 

845* ^ n double comparatives and superlatives ; as, He is more wiser 
than they; That is the most funniest blunder. 

Remark i. — The double comparative lesser is sanctioned by good 
authority ; as, Lesser Asia. 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Remark 2. — Many adjectives which do not logically admit of com- 
parison are nevertheless compared according to good usage ; as, This 
orange is rounder than that ; That is the most perfect specimen. These 
are abbreviated expressions used instead of the more verbose logical 
forms ; for example : That is the most perfect specimen, is equivalent 
to, That is the most nearly perfect specimen, etc. ; This orange is 
rounder than that, is equivalent to, This orange is more nearly round 
than that. 

846. In the use of them for those ; as, Give me them apples ; T/iem 's 
my sentiments. 

847* In the use of this here and that there; as, This here knife; 
That there pencil. 

848. In using the plural of this and that for the singular ; as, These 
kind of books; Those sort of men. 

849. Exercises for Drill in False Syntax. — Correct 

the errors and give the principles violated ; parse the words in italics. 

850. Articles. — That was a awful accident. An harbor was 
soon found. He carried an ewer. The boy drove a horse and ox. 
Look at the person not act. He bought the old and new book. He 
gave me a large and small knife. The general owned an old and new 
house. We traveled to the north and south. A noble and a gener- 
ous man scorns such trifles. The patience and love are slow to anger. 
The Lake Superior is a large body of water. She is a better scholar 
than a reader. Errors of the past generations have been corrected. 
Napoleon assumed the title of an emperor. All is lost but the honor. 
Henry was a good sort of a man. Nothing delayed finishing of the 
work. He is called the Mr. President. In the building roads there 
is much labor. Conferring of degrees. The Bishop Atkinson. 

851. Adjectives. — These sort of pens are first rate. Those kind 
of pears are the same as we have. He traveled fifty mile a day. Give 
me two pair of shoes. Those are nice molasses. I bought five bushel 
of apples. He chopped ten cord of wood. College students often 
haze each other. Coesar and Pompey envied one another. Peaches are 
more preferable than plums. She appeared splendidly. She sings 
very sweet. A new pair of gloves. The Bible is more precious than 
any book. Of all other vices, lying is the meanest. The latter of the 
three is the better. The last of the two was the best. He is an old 
intelligent man. They built a red, large, brick house. An old, mag- 



SYNTAX. 173 

nificent cathedral. A stone, irregular, ruined abbey. Such another 
man was never seen. Give vie them books. Where are them boys? 
Each may enter in their turn. No scholar will be allowed to leave 
their seat. He acted wise and prudent. Let every boy mind their 
own business. That is a hat of mine. She is a wife of hisen. They 
passed an irrevocable, final decree. My teacher gave me a birthday 
splendid present. What is the matter of that nose of yourn ? 

852. Rule II. — Adverbs limit verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs ; as, John writes smoothly ; That is a remarkably in- 
teresting book; They conversed very intelligently. 

853* Position. — The adverb is placed in that position in which 
it will best convey the intended meaning and render the sentence 
euphonious. 

854* It is usually placed before adjectives ; as, An uncommonly dark 
night. 

855- It is usually placed after simple forms of the verb ; as, Will- 
iam reads rapidly. 

856. WTien compound tenses are used, the adverb is usually placed 
after the auxiliary ; as, He was certainly mistaken. 

857* Never precedes the verb which it limits ; often, always, and 
sometimes may either precede or follow. 

858. The limitation of only depends upon the position which it 
occupies; hence care should be taken to locate it so that all ambi- 
guity will be avoided. Thus, in the sentence, He occupied the throne 
only for a year, ( ' only ' is incorrectly used, since it conveys the im- 
pression that he occupied the throne and nothing else, whereas the 
sense intended is, He occupied the throne for one year only. 

859. Use. — A few adverbs apparently limit nouns and pronouns; 
as, We alone [of all persons] have done this thing ; * alone ' really 
limits some adjective expressed or understood. Not only the soldiers 
perished, but also the offceis. ■ Not only ' and ' but also ' are correl- 
ative disjunctive conjunctions. 

860. Adverbs frequently limit prepositional phrases; as, The stone 
struck just beneath the window ; He threw the stone almost over the 
river. 

861. Adverbs also limit sentences; as, Verily, I say unto you. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

862. Adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives ; as, The above title ; 
Food enough, 

863. Some adverbs are used as nouns; as, Not till then, 

864. Yes, no, amen, etc., represent entire sentences ; as, Will he 
come? Yes. Here 'yes' is equivalent to the sentence, He will come. 

865. Conjunctive adverbs are generally said to unite clauses, and 
to limit a verb in each ; as, He will start when the train arrives. Here 
'when' is a conjunctive adverb, and according to this view limits 
both 'start' and 'arrives.' But a better disposition of conjunctive 
adverbs is this : Consider the clause which the conjunctive adverb 
introduces as a modifier of the verb in the leading clause, and the 
conjunctive adverb as the introductory of the subordinate clause, also 
a modifier of its verb. 

866. Two negatives make an affirmative; as, Nor did they not 
improve the opportunity ; that is, They did improve it. The repeti- 
tion of an independent negative strengthens the negation ; as, Not 
one, no, not one. 

867. An adverb often limits a verb understood ; as, I '11 away to 
the wars ; Truly [I say] he was a genius. 

868. The adverbs once, hence, thence, and whence, become nouns 
when a preposition is placed before them; as, I will come at once ; 
From whence comest thou? equivalent to, From what place comest 
thou? 

869. There is used as an expletive to introduce sentences ; as, 
There was a man named John. 

870. There is much diversity of opinion as to the use of never 
and ever. In such expressions as, Charm he nez>er so wisely, or, ever 
so wisely, either is correct, since both express the same idea. Never 
applies to time and ever to degree; as, Seldom or never; Grant them 
ever so little. 

871. Errors in the use of Adverbs. 

872. Adjectives should not be used for adverbs ; as, She smiles 
szveet; The ship sails slow ; He reads bad. 

873. The wrong use of negatives should be avoided ; as, He don 't 
know nothing about it; I can't do nothing for you; Nor is he not 
wwprepared. 



SYNTAX. 175 

874* The use of no for not should be carefully avoided ; as, I care 
not whether he comes or ?io. 

875* The adverb should not be misplaced in a sentence; as, The 
prisoner immediately was confined ; He spoke of the dangers and hard- 
ships of the journey, eloquently. 

876. The adverb like should not be used for the conjunction as ; 
as, She looks very much like her brother does : correct, She looks as 
her brother does ; or, like her brother. In the latter case, ' like ' is 
best parsed as a preposition, taking * brother' for its object. Many, 
however, prefer to consider it an adjective with the preposition to, 
understood, after it, taking 'brother' for its object. But in the sen- 
tence, He walks like his father does, if * does ' is retained, like must 
be changed to as. But the better form of expression is, He walks 
like his father ; considering ■ like ' as a preposition, taking ' father ' 
for its object. But many prefer to consider 'like' an adverb, in the 
sense of similarly; then 'father' is the object of to or unto, under- 
stood. 

877* Exercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

His voice sounds harshly. They passed by quiet. The end will be 
never reached. He imprudently acted in that affair. He argued the 
case before the jury and the assembled throngs of people eloquently. 
Seldom or ever was the like seen before. This apple feels softly. Do 
you know whether this is him or not? Nobody said nothing about it. 
We arrived home safely. They did not like neither his appearance nor 
his address. He told me very sad how he had been wronged. The 
army marched triumphant through the pass. The stricken hero fell 
unconsciously on the field. I wish my book was just like his is. I 
wish I could write just like you can. 

878. Rule III. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
and sentences; as, Birds and insects fly in the air; In my 
experience and in yours there are many points in common; 
You may go, but I will stay. 

879* Position. — Conjunctions are usually placed between the 
elements which they connect, but subordinate conjunctions often in- 
troduce sentences and precede both ; as, If this be true, there is an 
end of argument. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

880. Use. — Co-ordinate elements are connected by co-ordinate 
conjunctions; as, The war is over, and peace smiles once more upon 
the land. An inferior element is connected with a superior by a sub- 
ordinate conjunction; as, The city surrendered because there was no 
hope of relief. 

881. Words, phrases, and clauses having the same relations to 
another word, are united by co-ordinate conjunctions; as, 

882. Nouns and pronouns in the same case ; as, Jane and Mary 
ate an apple and an orange ; They sent an invitation for you and me, 

883. Adjectives limiting the same noun or pronoun ; as, A wise 
and upright judge. 

884. Prepositional phrases; as, The poor boy received the gift 
with joy and [with] thankfulness. 

885. Verbs; as, They fought and fell. 

886. Adverbs ; as, The chieftain harangued them briefly and elo- 
quently. 

887- Adverbs with prepositional phrases ; as, He acquitted him- 
self heroically, yet not with entire success. 

888. Dependent clauses ; as, That the one should escape and the other 
be taken, is rather strange. 

889. The conjunction may be understood in many of the preceding 
examples. 

890. When two or more terms refer jointly to a subsequent term, 
it must be equally applicable to each of them ; as, He wrote notes 
on and an appendix to the work, instead of, He wrote notes and an 
appendix to the work. Better : He wrote notes on the work and an 
appendix to it. 

891. In the use of correlative conjunctions, care should be taken 
that the second member of the pair corresponds to the first ; as, 
Neither the boat nor the train arrived in time ; Whether he will go 
or stay is uncertain ; The weather was so cold that many of the sol- 
diers perished. 

Remark. — For a list of corresponding conjunctions, see page 156. 

892. In expressing comparison, than is used after comparatives, 
else, other, and rather, but not after different. 



SYNTAX. 1 7 7 

8q3- There is usually an ellipsis after than; as, You are older than 
he [is] ; This tree is taller than that one [is tall]. 

8g4- Than is not a preposition, save in the sense of except or be- 
side. 

895. Two or more conjunctions frequently come together ; as, And 
if he disbelieves you, convince him of his error. 

896. Exercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words italicized. 

Education always has and always will be requisite to success. He 
is more skillful but not so powerful as his adversary. These princi- 
ples always have and always ought to be held in reverence. James is 
as studious and even more so than John. We were afraid lest he was 
lost. No one denies but what he did the deed. It was nothing else 
but deceit. He wrote a thesis discussing and commenting on the 
affair. As far as I can remember, this is none other than he. No 
sum is so small but that it should be saved. This piece is not so 
good as that. They neither desired or opposed the change. His 
speech was different than and superior to the other. Neither the man 
or the horse was found. You are two year older than him. 

897. Rule IV. — Prepositions show the relation of their 
objects to other words; as, Each in his narrow cell forever 
laid. 

Remark. — This rule is applied in parsing prepositions, and has 
no exceptions. 

898. Kxplanations. — The subsequent term of the relation ex- 
pressed by a preposition is called the object of the preposition; as, 
Byron the poet died in Greece. 

899. The word limited by the preposition and its object is called 
the antecedent term of the relation ; as, The vessel sailed from London. 

900. Position. — The preposition comes before its object, ex- 
cepting in : 

901. Interrogative sentences; as, Whom did he send for? 

902. Relative clauses; as, He bought an ax to chop wood with; 
It is a circumstance which I never heard of before. 

903. Use. — Care should be taken to select that preposition which 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

exactly expresses the meaning designed to be conveyed ; as, He de- 
parted in anger, not with anger ; It is different from this, not to this. 

904- To before an infinitive is not a preposition, but is merely the 
sign of the infinitive ; as, To learn to die is the great business of life. 

905. For before the objective subject of an infinitive is merely an 
introductory expletive; as, For us to learn to die is the great busi- 
ness of life. In such expressions, for expresses no relation, and can 
not therefore be a preposition. 

906. Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, He came from 
between the seas. They are then parsed as a compound preposition. 

907. One or more prepositions are frequently joined with a noun 
to express a relation ; as, On account of your remissness the plan failed; 
He comes in the character of a business man. 

908. This is equivalent to, He came as a business man ; hence 
1 as ' is a preposition in the last example. 

909. Exercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

The soldiers were perishing for thirst. The children went in the 
house. I differ from you in that opinion. He jumped on to the 
wagon. She was accused for equivocation. The regiment passed from 
Ohio to Indiana. The boys went, but the girls staid to home. The 
teacher compared this book to that. The father divided the peaches 
between his five sons. It was partitioned among the two. Henry and 
John differ widely with each other. There is no occasion of such 
violence. He has no desire for to go. Their conduct does not con- 
form with their profession. He turned away with anger from the scene. 
We had no faith with respect to such professions of regard. Good 
morning; will you walk in ? Whatever business he entered, he thought 
himself sure of success. She works better than him, 

910. Rule V. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent 
in person, number, and gender ; as, A bishop hath his office, 
and therefore he can not meddle with another office, which 
alone requireth a whole man. 

gil. Position. — The personal and the relative pronoun repre- 
sent the preceding noun standing nearest with which they do not dis- 
agree ; as, Socrates, amid all the revolutions of state, the commotions 



SYNTAX. 179 

of society, and the acerbity of Xantippe, maintained his placidity of 
temper and his devotion to philosophy. 

912. The relative pronoun must be placed as near as possible to its 
antecedent, otherwise obscurity, ambiguity, or nonsense is the result. 

913. Use. — In using the pronoun the same style should be pre- 
served in the same connection. For instance, in this example : You 
are the very man I was looking for ; I don't want thee to leave me 
again ; a member of the Friends' society would say, Thee is the very 
man I was looking for ; I don't want thee to leave me again. Many 
members of the same society would say, more correctly, Thou art the 
very man I was looking for; I don't want thee to leave me again. 
Except with the Friends, the correct form would be, You are the very 
man I was looking for ; I don't want you to leave me again. 

914* ?U though neuter, is used for brute animals and young chil- 
dren ; as, The child resembles its father ; Before I purchase a horse, 
I wish to be sure that it has no vicious habits. 

915* A tne subject of is, may introduce an antecedent of any 
person, number, or gender in the predicate ; as, It is the men whom 
you were expecting ; Was it you that broke the window ? It in the 
last sentence is parsed as representing its antecedent 'you,' but not 
agreeing with it, according to the authority of this article. 

916. When the antecedent is an inanimate object personified, the 
pronoun must agree with it in the figurative sense ; as, Time, my 
lord, hath a wallet at his back, wherein he puts alms for oblivion. — 
Shakespeare. 

Then Ceremony leads her bigots forth, 

Prepared to fight for shadows of no worth. — Cowper. 

917* When the antecedent is a noun used metaphorically, the pro- 
noun agrees with it in its literal sense ; as, Christ himself being the 
chief corner-stone on which all the building fitly framed together 
groweth into a holy temple unto the Lord. — Bible. 

918. When the antecedent is a noun used by metonymy for one 
having different properties, the pronoun agrees with it sometimes in 
its literal, sometimes in its figurative, sense ; as, 

Is Heaven tremendous in its frowns ? Most sure ; 
And in its favors formidable, too. — Young. 

Man's glory Heaven vouchsafes to call her own. — Id. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

919. When the antecedent is a noun used by synecdoche for more 
or less than it really signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in its fig- 
urative sense ; as, My Life, my Love, to thee I fly. 

920. When the antecedent is a sentence, a phrase, or a word used 
merely as a word, the pronoun agrees with it in the third, singular, 
neuter ; as, I wrote to her but I regret it; His being there was it- 
self wo evidence of his guilt; His name was John; it was the same 
as his father's. 

921. When the antecedent is a singular noun limited by the phrase 
many a, the pronoun may agree with it in the singular or represent 
it in the plural ; as, 

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 

Many an hour have we spent together : they were the happiest of my 
life. 

922. As the English language has no pronoun of the common 
gender in the third singular, the masculine pronoun is often used as 
including both genders; as, I wish every pupil to close his book; 
W T isely foreseeing, no doubt, that the more palatable each had ren- 
dered them to his own taste, the more he would be affected by their 
approaching loss. 

923. Kxercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated ; parse the words in italics. 

My friend, I look to thee for aid, and hope you will not disappoint 
me. Was it you that called me ? Every one of the children was at 
school this morning, and it would have rejoiced you to see how happy 
they looked. Our Father which art in heaven. The people which I 
have chosen are gone astray. The moon looked down in all its quiet 
beauty. It was them that committed the deed. I heard the news 
but I could not believe them. There you will find two gentlemen, 
one of which I wish to see. Taste these molasses ; I believe you will 
like them. The tribes of Israel whom God in ancient times especially 
favored, are now scattered. They will obey his commands that loves 
God. The feast was in honor of Bacchus, who is the name of the 
God of wine. He is christian which does as he would be done by. 
The friend has gone to the city that has been visiting us. There is 
a certain grace about her manners which one can scarcely describe. 
There are the man and the horse which I wished you to notice. 



SYNTAX. 181 

924. Rule VI. — A pronoun having for its antecedent a 
collective noun, conveying the idea of plurality, must agree 
with it in the plural number; as, 

Then shall the race of men confess 
With their united voice. 

925. A pronoun having for its antecedent a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of unity agrees with it in the singular number ac- 
cording to Rule V; as, He sees a nation groaning under its heavy 
yoke. 

926. Rule VII. — A pronoun having two or more ante- 
cedents connected by and, must agree with them in the 
plural number; as, Milton and Shakespeare have expressions 
peculiar to themselves. 

927- When two singular antecedents connected by and are anti- 
thetically distinguished, the pronoun agrees with them in the singular 
number; as, John, and not James, was praised for his bravery. 

928. When the antecedents are preceded by each, every, or no, or 
are singular and connected by as well as, the pronoun agrees with 
them in the singular ; as, It is sad, but nevertheless true, that every 
town and city in our land has its liquor shops ; The rich man as well 
as the poor has his needs. 

929. When singular antecedents connected by and are in apposi- 
tion, the pronoun agrees with them in the singular; as, 

The scorn and wonder of our days, 
Whose ruling passion was the love of praise, 
Though wondering senators hung on all he spoke, 
The club must hail him master of the joke. — Pope. 

93°- When the antecedents connected by and denote one person 
or thing, the pronoun agrees with them in the singular; as, My Lord 
and Master, thou wilt not cast me off; That coach and four is its mas- 
ter's sole remaining property. 

931. Kxercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated ; parse the words in italics. 

The honest man and the knave, too, have their friends. 

And let each heart and voice proclaim 
The goodness of their God. 



1 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Every officer and private soldier returned to their homes. Every 
drove and flock by themselves. I think a minister, as well as a po- 
litical speaker, should never read their discourses. Wealth and honor 
will be obtained by him who strives for it. This horse and wagon 
is for sale : who wants to buy them ? 

932. Rule VIII. — A pronoun having two or more sin- 
gular antecedents connected by or or nor, must agree with 
them in the singular number; as, In this instance neither 
honesty nor purity was its own reward. 

933- Exercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated ; parse the words in italics. 

Neither you nor I can blame ourselves. In my estimation either 
Brown, Bullion, or Harvey, with all their disagreements, are prefer- 
able to Pinneo. One may as well act malice or hatred as feel them. 
Either / or my brother must relinquish our claims. If a child or a 
savage may wish to express a general conception, they will be limited 
by their present vocabulary. I should think that John or Henry either 
would exert themselves to be present. Neither faith, hope, nor charity 
make their homes in his heart. 

934. Rule IX. — A finite verb must agree with its subject 
in person and number ; as, I love ; You love ; He loves. 

Remark. — All verbs are finite when used in the indicative, poten- 
tial, subjunctive, and imperative modes. All verbs are infinite when 
used in the infinitive and participial modes. 

935- Position. — A finite verb follows its subject; except in 
936. Interrogative sentences; as, Who is he? 

Explanation. — Here the verb is intransitive, and not only pre- 
cedes its subject, but follows its predicate nominative. Which is the 
subject and which the predicate in interrogative sentences, can be 
determined more clearly in all cases by answering the question ; as, 
Who is he? He is my brother. 'Brother,' the antecedent in the 
answer, fills the place of c who ' in the question, and determines its 
construction and case. 

937* Hyperbaton ; as, Silver and gold have I none; Sad was she. 

938. Imperative sentences ; as, Come, thou fount of every bless- 
ing ; Go, bind thou up those dangling apricots. 



SYNTAX. 183 

939* Use, — Every finite verb must have a subject, expressed or 
understood, with which it must agree in person and number. 

940. Verbs in the imperative mode generally agree with thou, ye, 
or you, understood ; as, Give [thou] some support to the budding 
twigs ; Go [ye] immediately. 

94-1- The adjuncts of a subject do not change the person and num- 
ber of its verb ; as, Magnus, with his accomplices, zvas put to death ; 
One of those boys is sick ; Six hours' work is necessary to accom- 
plish it. 

94 2 « An infinitive, a participle, a phrase, or a sentence, is often 
the subject of a finite verb : such a subject requires the verb in the 
third, singular ; as, To live is Christ, to die is gain ; Doing nothing 
is doing ill ; Why he acted as he did is not known ; A rolling stone 
gathers no moss, is a proverb. 

943. When two nominatives precede an intransitive or passive 
verb, that which stands nearest the verb is the subject, and the other 
is the attribate; as, He ascertained what the lesson was from his room- 
mate. 

944. Peculiarities of certain verbs in agreement. 

945* The verb ought being defective, rejects the s in the third, 
singular, present ; as, He ought not to go there. 

946* The verb need, in the sense of ought, also rejects the s in the 
third, singular, present ; as, He need not expect me to come. But in 
the sense of require it retains the s in the third, singular, present ; 
as, He needs aid. 

947* Exercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated ; parse the words in italics. 

They was present. He need not do it. He needs not do it. The 
conditions seems reasonable. So much of ability and merit are seldom 
found. His sins has weakened his mind. It is useless for you to deny 
it. There is principles in man which causes him to offend. These 
things happeneth to all men. What makes the matter plainer is, that 
his eyes were bloodshot and heavy, and his hands were stained with 
blood. The diversity of the cases are very apparent. Why was n 7 
you there? To be wise and prudent were his greatest desire. All 
] is well that ends well. That we should study and improve our 
time admit of no dispute. 



1 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

948. Rule X. — A finite verb having for its subject a col- 
lective noun, conveying the idea of plurality, must agree with 
it in the plural number; as, The nobility were there. 

Q49- ^ is sometimes difficult to determine whether the collective 
noun should express the idea of unity or of plurality ; in such cases 
present usage generally requires a plural verb. 

95°- A collective noun conveying the idea of unity is a singular 
noun, and the agreement of the verb with such a subject comes under 
Rule IX ; as, The crowd has dispersed ; The crowds have dispersed. 

95 *• Exercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated ; parse the words in italics. 

The seventh regiment were called out. The fleet is all arrived in 
port. These kind of habits are dangerous. The committee were quite 
full. The amount of expenditures and disbursements far exceed our 
calculations. The council was quarreling over the motion. The House 
of Representatives are a body separate from the Senate. The society of 
these places are always changing. 

952. Rule XI. — A finite verb having two or more sub- 
jects connected by and, must agree with them in the plural 
number; as, Even Phidias and Michael Angelo study the 
nature of the rough block they have to hew ; Sun and moon 
are both confounded; Tardiness, greediness, and vainglory 
have never been the sources of his inspiration. 

953. Exceptions. — When the subjects connected by and de- 
note one person or thing, the verb should be singular ; as, Jesus, my 
strength and righteousness, my savior and my king, hears me when 
I call. 

954- When the subjects are preceded by each, every, or no, or are 
singular and connected by as well as, the verb should be singular; as, 
Each sect and party has a set of opinions peculiar to itself; Every man, 
woman, and child was numbered ; Now, no slave, no master, exists in 
our land ; Religion, as well as culture, is essential to a perfect man. 

955- When the verb stands between its subjects, it agrees with the 
first, and is understood with the rest ; as, 

The mountains in their places stand, 
The sea, the sky. — Willis. 



SYNTAX. 185 

956- Two or more subject phrases connected by and, expressing 
unity of thought or action, take a singular verb ; as, To rise and retire 
early is essential to a student's highest success. 

957- Two co-ordinate verbal constructions, if both finite, or if both 
infinite, must be connected by a co-ordinate conjunction; but if one 
is finite and the other infinite, the conjunction is excluded ; as, James 
rose early and went to market ; Mary, coming in and observing the large 
company, was much embarrassed ; The migratory birds, deceived by 
the early spring, came too early, so that many of them perished. 

958. Kxercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated; parse the words in italics. 

Was you and John there ? Each boy and girl in their turn receive 
the money to which they are entitled. Not only John, but Henry and 
and James are coming. To tinder stand the condition of the writers, 
as well as to examine the meaning of the sacred scriptures, ai-e proc- 
esses necessary to the theologian. No person but children were at the 
picnic. After every boy and girl in the room learn their lessons, we 
will sing. Not a house, not a tree appear. Economy, not mean sav- 
ings, bring wealth. To be honest, and never to play the hypocrite, 
ai'e, I think, necessary to a true Christian. 

959. Rule XII. — A finite verb having two or more sin- 
gular subjects connected by or or nor, must agree with them 
in the singular number; as, There is no speech nor language 
where their voice is not heard. 

960. When the subjects are of different persons or numbers, the 
verb must agree with the one which immediately precedes it, and be 
understood with the rest ; as, Neither the mother nor the children 
are able to work ; Either John or I am to go. 

961. When the subjects connected by or or nor are in apposition, 
the verb should agree with the principal word ; as, The sign of equal- 
ity, or two short parallel horizontal lines, is used in such cases. 

962. Kxercises. — Correct errors and give the principles vi- 
olated ; parse the words in italics. 

Neither John nor James are remarkable for their talent. Neither 
animate nor inanimate nature teach the immortality of the soul. Either 
the girls or their brother have purchased the property. Too much 
sense or nonsense are apt to become tiresome. Either you or I are to 

K. Oram. — 16. 



1 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

blame. One turnout, or, in other words, a barouche and four, were all 
that remained of the season. 

963. Rule XIII. — A noun or personal pronoun limiting 
another noun or pronoun, signifying the same person or 
thing, is in the same case by apposition; as, Cromwell, the 
Protector, was a patriot ; I saw Johnson, the farmer's, wagon ; 
That shaft was aimed at us, citizens of the republic. 

964. Position. — The noun or pronoun in apposition usually stands 
after the limited noun or pronoun, but sometimes, especially in po- 
etry, it is placed before ; as, Daughter of morn, Aurora tints the east ! 
Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish which is the principal term 
and which the appositive ; as, Longfellow the poet. 

965. Use. — A noun, pronoun, phrase, or sentence, may be the 
basis of an appositive. 

966. A single word ; as, The E?nperor William. 

967. Two or more words; as, Virtue and liberty, harbingers of 
prosperity, go hand in hand. 

968. A phrase ; as, By telling stories, a practice of which he was 
fond, he became popular with the children. 

969. A sentence ; as, The world gave liberally to Chicago, an in- 
stance of generosity which will never be forgotten. 

970. A noun is used distributively in apposition with a plural ; 
as, The soldiers dispersed, each [soldier] to his tent. 

97 *• A plural is used appositively with several singular nouns; 
as, Peace, prosperity, happiness, all [these things] were sacrificed. 

Remark. — In the last two examples the nouns soldier and things 
are supplied in parsing, since pronominal adjectives do not have case. 

972. A title is parsed in apposition with a proper noun ; as, Col- 
onel Thompson ; Squire Jones ; Mr. Brown ; Miss Drake. 

973- A proper and a common name are often associated in ap- 
position ; as, The Ohio river; Cape Horn; Mount Olympus; The Des- 
ert Sahara. 

974- I n sucn expressions as, The Emperor of Germany's prime min- 
ister, Bismarck, the sign of the possessive is affixed to the last word 



SYNTAX. 187 

of the complex noun; but in parsing the separate words, the sign 
should be transferred to its true place, thus making the possessive 
Emperor 's, and leaving ' Germany ' in the objective case, the object 
of the preposition of. 

975- When two or more possessives are in apposition, the sign is 
used only with the one which immediately precedes the noun lim- 
ited, and indicates the relation of the others ; as, He stopped at Mr. 
Smith's [house] the merchant last night. 

Remark. — In the expression, Shakespeare, as a dramatic poet, has 
no equal, as is a preposition, being equivalent to the complex prep- 
osition, in the relation of, or in the character of though some gram- 
marians consider as in this connection a conjunction, and poet in ap- 
position with Shakespeare, 

976. KxerciseS. — Correct the errors and give the principles vi- 
olated; parse the words in italics. 

// was sent by my brother, he who wrote the letter. It was my 
cousin John, him who commanded the Chesapeake. I sent a present 
to my friends, they who we met at the fair. We are given to death, 
ms and ours. The stranger prayed for his enemies, they who he had 
reason to curse. You had better do that yourself ; not ask me ! That 
he was in such company was itself presumptive evidence of his guilt. 
Let him come and bring it himself 

977. Rule XIV. — The predicate noun or pronoun, with 
an intransitive or passive verb referring to the same thing 
as its subject, must be in the same case ; as, Plato was a 
philosopher ; The stranger seemed to be an honest man; I 
thought him to be you : We declared it to be them. 

978. Position. — The predicate noun or pronoun usually follows 
the verb, but may come before it in the following cases : 

X s 979- ^ n interrogative sentences; as, Who are you? 

Remark. — It is always safe to answer the question before deciding 
which is the subject and which the predicate word in interrogative 
sentences. 

980. When there is a rhetorical or poetical transposition of terms; 
as, Feet was I to the lame. 

981. In cases where both the subject and the predicate nomina- 
tive come before the verb ; as, They cared not whose son he was. 



1 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

982. Use. — Any verb may take a predicate nominative except 
a transitive verb in the active voice. 

983. Any word, phrase, or sentence used as a noun may have the 
construction of a noun in the predicate. 

984. The predicate noun or pronoun after a finite verb can be in 
the nominative case only, but after infinitives or participles it may be 
either in the nominative or objective; as, John is said to be a good 
boy ; They desired hi?7i to become a lawyer ; The gladiator being an 
expert swordsman, soon dispatched his unwary antagonist ; We did 
not hear of him becoming a soldier. See Arts. 1228 and 1247. Close 
attention to the sense of the passage will enable the pupil to decide 
whether the noun in the predicate is in the nominative or in the ob- 
jective case. 

985. Exercises. — -Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

// is me. We thought it was her. If I had been him I would have 
gone. Who did you say he was? We knew it to be them. They 
supposed it was me. // was not me who he was finding fault with. 
Whom do you think they are? They declared she herself to be the 
author of the mischief. Whom do you say that he is? Had it been 
me / would have resisted such demands. They thought it to be un- 
just that they should be thus robbed of their property. They de- 
clared it to be impossible for him to prevaricate under any circum- 
stances. Let them become one another's joy. We supposed it safe 
to make the investment. His being the teacher is no reason why we 
should change our conversation. Its being him is just what's the 
matter. Is not their conversation being improper the reason for its 
change? Let each [ ] esteem other [ ] better than themselves. 

986. Rule XV. — A noun or pronoun which is the sub- 
ject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case; as, Fish 
swim; Birds fly. 

987. Position. — The nominative usually stands before its verb, 
except : 

988. When a question is asked without the use of an interrogative 
pronoun; as, Shall man be more just than God? 

989. When the verb is in the imperative mode ; as, Abide ye here. 

990. When a wish or emotion is expressed ; as, Long live the king. 



SYNTAX. 189 

ggi. With the introductory expletive there ; as, There lived a man. 

992. When a conjunction denoting supposition is omitted ; as, Had 
we known this, we could have saved him. 

993* I n emphatic sentences ; as, Here am /. 

994- After say, think, and reply ; as, Thus saith the Lord. 

995* Use. — Every nominative unless in the nominative absolute, 
in apposition, or in the predicate, must be the subject of a finite verb, 
expressed or understood. 

99^' A noun and its pronoun must not both be used as the sub- 
ject of the same verb ; as, Byron, he was a great poet. 

997* The subject must not be omitted when its omission would 
injure the sense. 

998. Kxercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

Them are fine apples. These trees are taller than them. James 
and me read together. Who is there ? Me. You and him will go. 
Us who have escaped should be thankful. How is thee, my friend ? 
None is liked better than her. The boys plays ball. Nobody thought 
so but them. Him being at home we were kindly welcomed. It was 
her who did the mischief. Whom do you think he was? Who do 
you travel with ? The smoke's being dense, we thought there was a 
great fire. He is taller than her. She is not as wise as him. If I 
were him I would read more and talk less. 

999. Rule XVI. — The subject of the infinitive is com- 
monly in the objective case. But when the subject of the 
infinitive is the same as the subject of the finite verb lim- 
ited by the infinitive, it is in the nominative case ; as, They 
wished him to go ; John expected to buy the house ; It was 
supposed to be his horse. 

Remark. — This rule is given in this form for the sake of brevity. 
When the subject of the infinitive is any thing else than a noun or 
pronoun, it is not strictly applicable, since only nouns and pronouns 
have case. 

1000. Explanations. — Every infinitive has a subject expressed 
or understood, and this may always be supplied and the infinitive 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

phrase expanded into a finite clause; as, I desired him to go; equiv- 
alent to, I desired that he should go. I wished to go; equivalent to, 
I wished that I could go. 

1 001. A noun or pronoun in the objective can not be the object 
of a preposition and the subject of an infinitive at the same time. For 
example in the sentence, For positive people to be mistaken is noth- 
ing very uncommon, ' for ' is merely an introductory expletive, being 
a preposition only in form, and does not govern ' people ' as an ob- 
jective ; it has no antecedent term of relation. 

1002. After an active verb which admits of two objectives, one 
of the objects is apparently used both as the object of the finite verb 
and as the subject of the infinitive; as, I taught him to read. No noun 
or pronoun but a double relative can be found in two constructions 
at the same time. The only safe way to decide which construction 
the objective really has, is to expand the infinitive phrase. Thus the 
above example would read, I taught him, that he should read. If 
* him ' is considered the direct object of 'taught,' that he should read, 
is an adverbial element modifying the verb 'taught,' and its equiv- 
alent infinitive takes another him for its subject, and the original sen- 
tence with this him supplied, becomes : I taught him [for him] to 
read. But if to read is considered the direct object of ' taught,' * him,' 
with the preposition 'to,' understood, becomes the adverbial element 
limiting 'taught,' and the sentence will become: I taught to read 
(equivalent to reading) [to] him. In some cases it is somewhat doubt- 
ful whether the objective is the object of the active transitive verb 
or the subject of the infinitive verb ; as, I ordered him to saddle the 
horse ; for, I ordered him that he should saddle the horse, and, I or- 
dered that he should saddle the horse, may either be considered as 
giving the meaning of the sentence, although the first expression is 
undoubtedly the preferable equivalent. 

1003. Rule XVII. — A noun or pronoun which is the 
object of a transitive verb in the active voice, must be in the 
objective case ; as, The boy shot a bird. 

Remark. — Infinitives, participles, pronominal adjectives, and clauses, 
when used as the objects of transitive verbs, have no case. The mod- 
ification of case belongs only to nouns and pronouns. 

1004. Position. — The object of a transitive verb is placed after 
it, excepting in : 



SYNTAX. 191 

1005. Relative clauses; as, He is the one whom they sought. 

1006. Interrogative sentences; as, Whom does the nation honor? 

1007. Emphatic expressions; as, Him his companions forsook. 

1008. Poetic or inverted style; as, Gold many hunted — sweat and 
bled for gold. 

IOOQ. Government. — The objective is governed by a transi- 
tive verb as the receiver of the action or influence denoted by it. 

1010. When the construction is changed from the active to the 
passive, the object of the active verb becomes the subject of the pas- 
sive, and the subject of the active the object of a preposition ; as, He 
broke the window; active: The window was broken by him; passive. 

1011. Verbs of teachings giving, allowing, denying, and others, ap- 
parently govern two objectives, one as an immediate and the other 
a remote object; as, She taught him French; He gave me an apple. 
Really, however, the remote object is governed by a preposition under- 
stood; as, He gave an apple to me. In changing such expressions from 
the active to the passive construction, either the immediate or the remote 
object may become the subject of the passive verb ; as, An apple was 
given [to] me ; / was given [with . ? ] an apple. Logically, the imme- 
diate object only can become the true subject of the passive verb, 
since a preposition can not be supplied with it in either voice with- 
out marring the sense. 

1012. Verbs signifying to make, choose, name, etc., apparently gov- 
ern two objectives ; as, They made him emperor. But verbs belong- 
ing to these classes really have an abridged infinitive sentence for 
their object. In the sentence, He made that log a boat, 'log' is not 
the object of 'made,' surely, nor is 'boat,' for the idea is really this: 
He made (accomplished) that the log should be (become) a boat; in 
other words, He made the log [to be] a boat. So, also, We elected 
him [to be] president; He called (denominated) her [to be] Sarah. 
In these examples it may be seen that the fact given by the infini- 
tive and its adjuncts is the direct object of the finite transitive verb 
of the principal sentence. This becomes more apparent when the 
infinitive clause is expanded, and the construction changed from the 
active to the passive form. The first sentence would then read thus: 
That the log should become a boat, was made [accomplished] by him. 
The true object of the active verb is now the subject of the passive, 
and the subject of the active, the object of a preposition. 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1013. A transitive verb does not permit a preposition to govern 
its object ; as, I will not allow cf such conduct. 

10 14. Some intransitive verbs govern an objective of kindred sig- 
nification with the verb; as, He laughed a scornful laugh; She danced 
a waltz; They ran a race. 

Remark. — Intransitive verbs have the active voice only except (1) 
in expressions like the above, when they have the passive also; as, 
That race was well run by them; (2) by enallage ; as, He was gone 
before sunset. 

1015- Intransitive causative verbs govern an objective; as, Henry 
trots his pony ; equivalent to, Henry causes his pony to trot. 

1016. Exercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated; parse the words in italics. 

Who did he send? Whom was sent by him? He they praised, she 
they censured. They chose John and I monitors for the week. He, 
after a short discussion, they elected Treasurer. They invited she and 
her sister to dine at Delmonico' > s. Who did he ask ? Who do you 
take me to be? 

1017. Rule XVIII. — A noun or pronoun which is the 
object of a preposition, must be in the objective case; as, 
The book is on the shelf ; Columbus sailed from Palos. 

1018. Position. — The object is usually placed after the prep- 
osition, except : 

IOIQ. In interrogative sentences, when it is sometimes placed be- 
fore; as, What did he send/tfr/ Whom did you write to? 

1020. When the object is a relative pronoun expressed or under- 
stood ; as, That is the place which I sent him to ; They cut a rod to 
divine with. 

1 02 1. Government. — The preposition is often understood: 

1022. When it is used with the first noun of a series, and omit- 
ted before the rest ; as, He sent a present to Henry, Jane, and Susan. 

1023. After verbs of giving, teaching, etc. ; as, She gave [to] him 
a coin ; I taught them [in] algebra ; or, I taught algebra to them. 
See page 191, art. ion. 



SYNTAX. 193 

IO24. After near, nigh, like, worthy, and unworthy ; as, She is like 
[to] her father; We sat near [to] the wall; He was not worthy the 
confidence reposed in him. However, the better disposition of these 
equivocal words near, nigh, like, worthy, and unworthy is to consider 
them prepositions. 

1025- After verbs and adjectives before nouns denoting time, 
value, weight, and measure ; as, The fair lasted [through] a week ; 
The fish weighs [to the amount of] ten pounds ; The fence is five 
feet high ; that is, it is high to the extent of five feet. 

1026. Before nouns denoting time when indefinitely ; as, The pres- 
ident arrived last week. The preposition is generally used before nouns 
denoting time whm definitely ; as, We arrived on Monday, late in the 
evening. 

1027. Use of Prepositional Phrases. 

1028. The prepositional phrase should be placed as near the word 
it limits possible. Violations of this principle lead to many ambi- 
guities ; as, He declared that there was treachery in the camp with 
fierce indignation; We saw that all was lost in a moment; The cohit 
mander came to see the vessel sail in a carriage. 

I02g. The practice of connecting two prepositions with one ob- 
ject ; as, They came up to and turned away from the goal, although 
condemned by grammarians as "splitting particles," is sanctioned by 
much good usage. 

1030. Kxercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

The teacher gave you and I that book. Who did you go with? 
We expected better things of you and she. Who did you send the 
letter to? I will ask whoever I please. Between you and I, that is 
an affair of our own. She they inquired for, me they neglected. The 
speed was very slow of the vessel. A package was delivered to the 
tall gentleman in the black coat marked C. O. D. The miller was 
eating his dinner in his white hat. He threw a dime to the veteran 
leaning on a crutch with one leg. 

1031. Rule XIX. — A noun or pronoun limiting another 
noun or pronoun signifying a different person or thing, is in 
the possessive case ; as, Greeley's History ; Bacon's Rebellion ; 
Our destiny. 

H. Gram. — 17. 



194 ENCxLISH GRAMMAR. 

1032. Position. — The noun or pronoun in the possessive is 
placed immediately before the noun it limits, except when an adjec- 
tive intervenes ; as, Gentlemen's black boots. 

1033. Government. — The possessive is governed by a noun 
in any case. The governing noun may be understood; as, He went 
to St. Peter's [church]. 

1034. Use. — The possessive case, and the objective governed by 
the preposition of, are equivalent when of denotes possession ; as, The 
governor's house; or, The house of the governor. 

I035- When several possessives denoting common possession limit 
the same noun, the sign is used with the last only; as, Mary and 
Alice's shawl. But when they denote possession not in common, the 
sign is used with each ; as, James's and Lucy's hats. 

1036. S, the sign of the possessive, is omitted when it would bring 
together several hissing sounds; as, Jesus' sayings; Davies' Surveying; 
For righteousness' sake ; Ulysses' silence. 

1037. The sign J s is not used with pronouns; as, Hers, Its, etc. 

1038. A noun limited by a possessive plural, or by two or more 
possessives severally, may be singular or plural, as the sense requires ; 
as, The men's farm ; The women's hats; The boys' and girls' sled. 

1039. The possessive whosesoever may be divided by tmesis; as, 
Whose name soever it was. 

1040. A pronoun limits a pronoun in the possessive when the lim- 
iting word is used as an attribute ; as, He is mine and I am his. 

1 041. Kxercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

The soldiers spirit was broken. The mots'' courage failed when the 
crise's came. The ladie's fans were lost. The dogs' ear was cut off. 
London and Paris's drainage are very different. He stopped at John- 
son's & Co.'s. He read Washington, the patriot, soldier, and states- 
man's address. This book is his', that one is year's. Its value is 
nothing compared with mine'. Were John and Jame's confession alike? 
Were John s and James's confessions alike? Were William and Mary's 
friends the same ? Were Jacobs and Esau's parents alive ? The chil- 
drens' health was seriously affected. The mens ways was low. The 
boys story was believed. The bishop's of Dublin's palace. The mis- 
take was the teacher, not the pupil's. 



SYNTAX. 195 

1042. Rule XX. — Infinitives and participles have the 
construction of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; as, To drink 
is dangerous; The army had orders to march; He waited to 
state his case ; Lying is sinful ; The horse running away broke 
the buggy ; They came pleading for peace. 

I. INFINITIVES. 

1043. Use of the Infinitive. 

1044- ^ s a nolin , adjective, or adverb. 

1045. Used in the predicate after the verb be, the infinitive may 
denote : 

1046. A simple equivalent; as, To die is to sleep. 

1047. Possibility or obligation; as, Lead is to be found in Mis- 
souri ; This rule is to be observed. In the last two instances, the in- 
finitives have the construction of adjectives in the predicate. 

1048. Something determined or expected; as, We are to go next 
Tuesday. In this case to go has the construction of a noun, being 
the object of expecting or intending, understood. 

1049- The infinitive after have denotes necessity; as, We have to 
go ; He has to do better. Here the infinitive has the construction of 
a noun, and is the object of the verb have. 

1050. The infinitive is used after most verbs to denote purpose; 
as, He came to study. To study is an adverbial element of purpose 
limiting came; in other words, it has the construction of an adverb. 

1 05 1. The infinitive is used in comparisons after so, as, too, and 
than; as, Be so good as to go; He knew better than to resist. The 
first sentence expanded reads thus : Be so good as it is good to go. 
Here to go is the logical subject of is, understood. In the second ex- 
ample, to resist has the construction of a noun, being the subject of 
\is\ Supplying the ellipses the sentence reads thus: He knew better 
than [to think that] to resist (equivalent to, resistance) [is safe]. The 
elliptical infinitive to think has the construction of an adverb limiting 
better. 

1052. As a verb, the infinitive may have all the modifications of 
a verb except person and number. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I0 53- Use of the Infinitive Sign. 

1054* When several infinitives come together, the sign to is often 
used with the first and omitted before the others; as, They came to 
see, hear, and judge for themselves. 

I0 55* Nothing should come between the infinitive and its sign 
to; as, John was told not to go ; rather than, John was told to not go. 



II. PARTICIPLES. 

1056. Use of the Participle. 

I057' As a noun, adjective, or adverb. 

1058. Used in the construction of a noun in the nominative, the 
participle may be either the subject of a finite verb or in the pred- 
icate after it ; as, Promising is not performing. 

1059. Used in the construction of a noun in the objective, the 
participle may be the object of an active transitive verb or of a prep- 
osition ; as, Avoid defaming your neighbors ; He desisted from perse- 
cuting his enemies. 

1060. When the participle is used as a noun, its subject is fre- 
quently expressed in the possessive case ; as, Nothing prevented the 
soldier's returning home. But by enallage the objective is often used 
for the possessive ; as, I did not think of them returning so soon. In 
this sentence, them, the objective subject of the participle, is used by 
enallage for the possessive subject their. But often the possessive con- 
struction gives a meaning entirely different from the objective. This 
may be readily seen by comparing the following sentences : There is 
no harm in children *s playing by the roadside; There is no harm in 
children playing by the roadside. The first asserts that there is no 
harm in the playing of the children ; the second, that there is no harm 
in the children themselves. 

1 06 1. When a participle is preceded by an article or an adjective, 
it becomes a noun, and must be followed by the preposition of to 
govern the noun which was before its object. Thus, Many hands 
are employed in printing dailies ; or, Many hands are employed in 
the printing of dailies. In these forms of expression, the and of must 
be either both used or both omitted. The two constructions, how- 
ever, are not always exactly equivalent. For example, the sentences, 



SYNTAX. 197 

We experienced great pleasure in hearing John ; and, We experienced 
great pleasure in the hearing of John, have very different meanings. 
In the use of the and of the writer must be guided solely by the 
sense and harmony of the passage. 

1062. A participle may become an attribute by the implied affinita- 
tion of an intransitive verb ; as, The vine lies withering on the ground ; 
that is, The vine is withering in lying on the ground. The participle 
has all the modifications of a verb except person and number. 

1063. The present active participle of many verbs whose passive 
form does not express continued action, is used with the verb be in a 
passive sense to denote progressive action ; as, The fleet is building; 
The house is refitting. 

1064. Errors in the use of the Participle. 

1065. The use of the past participle for the past indicative; as, I 
seen him fall ; John done that mischief. 

1066. The use of the past indicative instead of the past participle 
in forming the past perfect tense ; as, We have sazu much better times ; 
Mary had wrote a letter; They had just went home. 

1067. The use of the past indicative active as a past passive par- 
ticiple; as, He sent a letter wrote on parchment. 

1068. Ambiguity in the reference of the participle should be care- 
fully avoided; as, He guided the man eyeing him closely. 

1069. Exercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

Infinitives. — We expected to have gone. He declared the enemy 
to evacuate the fort. It is not right for to do so. He was seen pass 
through the meadow. They thought to have delayed us. The governor 
ordered them go home. The teacher desired the boy to carefully study 
his lesson. 

Participles. — By the reading books we obtain valuable informa- 
tion. Hazing of fellow students is a barbarous practice. I seen him 
laugh. Standing in the field, the house can be seen. He went to 
catch a horse, carrying a bridle behind him. The boy had went be- 
fore we came. They had rode past the spot before we arrived, calling 
for assistance. There is no necessity of the boy knowing these things. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

There is little probability of George becoming dishonest. The ancients 
never thought of steam becoming a motive power. There is no harm in 
women studying politics. Who is afraid of woman's voting ? A well 
wrote letter is a welcome missive. They hid the gold stole from the 
governor. We passed through the meadow lately mowed. As when 
the potent rod of Moses waved over the river called up a cloud of lo- 
custs that darkened all the land. 

1070. Rule XXI. — The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, 
let, make, need, see, and some others of similar signification, 
take the infinitive after them without the sign to ; as, They 
bade him stay a while ; I heard him read; We let them go, etc. 

1 07 1. The sign to is almost always used after the passive forms 
of these verbs, and sometimes after the active; as, They dared the 
enemy to cross the line. 

1072. The omission of the sign to after need is confined entirely 
to negative expressions ; as, They need not go ; She need work no longer ; 
They need to go once more ; She needs to try again. 

1073- The auxiliary be of the infinitive is also omitted after some 
of the above verbs ; as, I heard the lesson [be] assigned. 

1074- When have denotes necessity, the infinitive following it 
takes the sign to; as, He had to read. Otherwise the sign may be 
omitted; as, Would you have us reject such an offer? The sign to 
should not be supplied in parsing the infinitive after any of these verbs 
given in Rule XXI. To use the sign to after any of these signs of 
the infinitive would be a violation of the rule ; in other words, false 
syntax. 

1075. Kxercises. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

You may let him to go. James needs study his lesson a little 
more. The army need not to entrench. They bade him to not stay. 
We made the culprit to go. An energetic man will make his influ- 
ence to be felt. We sometimes see the best of men to be persecuted. 
Would you have me to deny my own act? 

1076. Rule XXII. — A noun or pronoun independent of 
sentential structure, is in the nominative absolute ; as, Susan, 
go to school; Huntsman, rest. 



SYNTAX. 199 

1077- Cases in which a noun or pronoun may be in the nomina- 
tive absolute : 

IO78. By direct address ; as, Henry, shut the door. 

I079- By exclamation; as, Stuff and nonsense! 

1080. By inscription ; as, Blair'' s Rhetoric ; Gibbon's Rome, 

1 08 1. By pleonasm ; as, The boy, O where was he? 

1082. With a participle ; as, The dog barking, the wolf slunk away. 
In this construction the participle may be understood; as, His pres- 
tige [being] such, no foe could hope to conquer. 

1083. Use of the nominative absolute. 

1084- The nominative absolute with the participle generally has 
a temporal or causal force, being equivalent to an abridged phrase or 
clause ; as, The sun rising, the snow began to melt ; equivalent to, 
Because the sun was rising, the snow began to melt. 

1085. The nominative absolute by pleonasm is used for emphasis ; 
as, Babylon, she is fallen. 

1086. All titles of books, headings of pages, inscriptions of names 
on monuments, coins, and signs; also labels on goods or packages, 
superscriptions, and signatures of letters, are in the nominative ab- 
solute by inscription. 

1087. The nominative absolute gives strength and vivacity to 
thought. Some other part or parts of speech may be supplied with 
every word used in this construction ; but supplying the assumed ellip- 
sis only encumbers speech and misleads the pupil from the true con- 
struction and full force of the expression involved. 

1088. KxerciseS. — Correct the errors and give the principles 
violated ; parse the words in italics. 

Him being young, they led him astray. And me, what shall I do? 
Them having departed, deliberation was at an end. Us asking naught 
but peace, they refused to entertain. O happy us! what prospects 
cheer our rugged paths ! 

1089. Rule XXIII. — Interjections have no dependent 
construction ; as, Alas I poor Yorick ! O Jerusalem ! 

Remark. — To this rule there are no exceptions. 



200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IOgO. Position. — The interjection may be placed before or 
after a sentence, or between its parts ; as, Heyday ! and what 's the 
matter now ? He has gone, alas ! to return no more ; The victory is 
ours, hurra! hurra! 

IOQI. Use. — Words not in the nominative absolute following an 
interjection, do not depend upon it; as, Alas! poor me. Here me is 
in the objective used by enallage for the nominative absolute by excla- 
mation. 

1092. When pronouns follow an interjection, those of the first 
person are usually in the objective, those of the second person in the 
nonmiative ; as, Ah me ! O thou ! 

1093. Rule XXIV. — The expletive words //, that, there, 
are used to introduce sentences; and the expletive for, is 
used to introduce the infinitive with its objective subject; 
as, // is good for us to be here ; or, // is well that we were 
there ; That men could be so base seems impossible ; There 
was a great tumult among the people ; For men to kill each 
other by thousands, is not considered murder. 

1094. Examples under Rule XXIV. 

It is necessary to explain the causes of such a delay. It is im- 
possible for such a thing to occur again. It is an outrage on society 
that he should boast of his crimes. For men to act lies is worse than 
to speak them. It is unnecessary for us to proceed further on our 
journey. 

There'' s a magical isle up the river of Time 
Where the softest of airs are playing — 

Thei'e's a clouldless sky and a tropical clime, 

And a song as sweet as a vesper chime, 

And the Junes with the roses are staying. — Taylor. 

General Remark. — Several of these twenty-four rules for the sake 
of brevity are somewhat illogical; e. g., Rule XVIII., if fully ex- 
pressed, will run thus : A noun or pronoun representing the object of the 
relation expressed by a preposition, must be in the objective case. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 



I. RULES OF LIMITATION. 

797. Rule I. 1 — Articles limit nouns; adjectives, nouns 
and pronouns. 

852. Rule II. — Adverbs limit verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

2. RULES OF CONNECTION. 

878. Rule III. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, 
and sentences. 

897. Rule IV. — Prepositions show the relations of their 
objects to other words. 

3. RULES OF AGREEMENT. 

910. Rule V. — A pronoun must agree with its anteced- 
ent in person, number, and gender. 

924. Rule VI. — A pronoun having for its antecedent a 
collective noun, conveying the idea of plurality, must agree 
with it in the plural number. 

926. Rule VII. — A pronoun having two or more ante- 
cedents connected by and, must agree with them in the plural 
number. 

932. Rule VIII. — A pronoun having two or more sin- 
gular antecedents connected by or or nor, must agree with 
them in the singular number. 



1 The number in arabic preceding each rule refers to the corresponding 

section which begins the discussion of the rule. 

(201) 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

934. Rule IX. — A finite verb must agree with its subject 
in person and number. 

948. Rule X. — A finite verb having for its subject a col- 
lective noun, conveying the idea of plurality, must agree 
with it in the plural number. 

952. Rule XI. — A finite verb having two or more sub- 
jects connected by and, must agree with them in the plural 
number. 

959. Rule XII. — A finite verb having two or more sin- 
gular subjects connected by or or nor, must agree with them 
in the singular number. 

963. Rule XIII. — A noun or personal pronoun limiting 
another noun or pronoun, signifying the same person or 
thing, is in the same case by apposition. 

977. Rule XIV. — The predicate noun or pronoun, with 
an intransitive or passive verb referring to the same thing 
as its subject, must be in the same case. 

4. RULES OF GOVERNMENT. 

986. Rule XV. — A noun or pronoun which is the sub- 
ject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case. 

999. Rule XVI. — The subject of the infinitive is com- 
monly in the objective case. But when the subject of the 
infinitive is the same as the subject of the finite verb limited 
by the infinitive, it is in the nominative case. 

Remark. — This rule is given in this form for the sake of brevity. 
When the subject of the infinitive is anything else than a noun or 
pronoun, it is not strictly applicable, since only nouns or pronouns 
have cases. 

1003. Rule XVII. — A noun or pronoun which is the ob- 
ject of a transitive verb in the active voice, must be in the 
objective case. 



SYNTAX. 203 

1017. Rule XVIII. — A noun or pronoun which is the 
object of a preposition, must be in the objective case. 

1031. Rule XIX. — A noun or pronoun limiting another 
noun or pronoun, signifying a different person or thing, is in 
the possessive case. 

1042. Rule XX. — Infinitives and participles have the con- 
struction of nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

1070. Rule XXI. — The active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, 
let, make, need, see, and some others of similar signification, 
take the infinitive after them without the sign to. 

5. RULES OF INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION. 

1076. Rule XXII. — A noun or pronoun independent of 
sentential structure, is in the nominative absolute. 

1089. Rule XXIII. — Interjections have no dependent 
construction. 

1093. Rule XXIV. — The expletive words it, that, there, 
are used to introduce sentences; and the expletive for, is 
used to introduce the infinitive, with its objective subject. 



PART FOUR. 
PROSODY. 

1095. Prosody treats of figures of Speech, Punctuation, 
and Versification. 

1096. Figures. — A grammatical figure is a deviation from 
the ordinary use of a word, either in spelling, formation, con- 
struction, or application. 

1097. Classes. — Figures of Orthography, Etymology, Syn- 
tax, Rhetoric. 

FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

1098. A figure of Orthography is a deviation from the 
true spelling of a word. The principal figures of Orthog- 
raphy are Mimesis and Archaism. 

1099. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of mispronunci- 
ation, or is the misuse of a word ; as, 

And he said that he had heard 
That Hai7iericans spoke Hinglish; 
But he deemed it quite habsurd, 
Yet he felt the deepest hinterest 
In the missionary work. — Saxe. 

An oat straw will suction up a sherry cobbler in four minutes and 
a half by the watch. — Josh Billings. 

1 100. Archaism is the use of obsolete words or phrases 
in accordance with ancient usage; as, 

Right jollie is ye tailyor-wizxY 

As annie man may be ; 

And all ye daye upon ye betiche 

He worketh merrilie. — Saxe. 
(204) 



PROSODY. 205 



FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 



iioi. A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the 
ordinary formation of a word. The principal figures of 
Etymology are Apheresis, Syncope, Apocope, Prosthesis, 
Paragoge, Diaeresis, Synaeresis, Tmesis. 

1 102. Apheresis is the elision of initial letter or letters 
of a word ; as, 'gan, 'neath, 'bove. 

1 103. Syncope is the elision of letters in the middle of 
a word ; as, e'en, o'er, sp'rits, lab'ring. 

1 104. Apocope is the elision of the final letter or letters 
of a word; as, tho', for though; th', for the; t'oher, for the 
other. 

1 105. Prosthesis is prefixing a syllable to a word; as, 
tfdown, tfgoing, ^running, etc. 

1 106. Paragoge is the annexing of a final syllable; as, 
deary for dear; John//y for John. 

1 107. Diaeresis is the separation of concurrent vowels 
into different syllables; as, co-operate, orthoepy. 

1 108. Synaeresis is the joining of two syllables into one; 
as, seest, for seest; loved, for loved. 

1 109. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between parts 
of a compound ; as, Which way soever he turns ; To us ward. 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

1 1 10. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordi- 
nary construction of a word. The principal figures of Syn- 
tax are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Hyperbaton, Enallage, Syllepsis. 

Ill I. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words neces- 
sary to complete construction, but not necessary to the mean- 
ing of a sentence ; as, 



206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The large [man] and the small man ; One [friend] of my friends ; 
George was prepared. James was not [prepared] ; I went the way 
you directed me; I went [in] the way [in which] you directed me. 
There may be an ellipsis of any part of speech, and sometimes whole 
phrases or clauses are omitted. 

1 1 12. Asyndeton is the ellipsis of connectives ; as, 

I came, [and] I saw, [and] I conquered. 

1 1 13. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are nec- 
essary to the full construction of a sentence ; as, 

The villain, is he yet alive ? The gold you sent, it was squandered. 

1 1 14. Polysyndeton is the use of superfluous conjunc- 
tions; as, 

The lion and tiger and elephant roam in the jungles of Asia. 

1 1 15. Epizeuxis is the emphatic repitition of a word; as, 

Break, break, break, 

On thy cold gray stones, O sea ! — Tennyson. 

1 1 16. Anadiplosis is the use of the same word at the 
end of one clause or sentence, and at the beginning of the 

next; as, 

He lives! 
Lives! A father's curse can never die. — Coleridge. 

1 1 17. Anaphora is the repetition of the same word at 
the beginning of several successive clauses or sentences ; as, 

Two strangers meeting at a festival ; 

Two lovers whispering by an orchard wall ; 

Two lives bound fast in one with golden ease ; 

Two graves grass-green beside a gray church tower. 

Tennyson. 

1 1 18. Hyperbaton is an inversion of the natural order 
of the words or phrases in a sentence ; as, 

Deep on his front engraven, 

Deliberation sat, and public care. — Milton. 



PROSODY. 



207 



Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heav'n, first-born, 
Or of th' Eternal co-eternal beam, 
May I express thee unblamed ? — Id. 

He wanders earth around. 

1 1 19. Enallage is the use of one part of speech or one 
modification for another; as, 

They fall successive and successive rise ; Poor me ! Solomon, than 
whom there never was a wiser; i%?thinks; Jfeeems ; There is no dan- 
ger of him falling ; It is me. 

1 1 20. Syllepsis is the agreement of one word with an- 
other used in a figurative sense; as, 

The word was made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld his 
glory ; The Earth is decked in her robes of green. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

1 121. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the usual 
application or signification of words. The following are the 
most important: 

Simile, Personification, Anti-climax, 

Metaphor, Apostrophe, Paralepsis, 

Allegory, Vision, Litotes, 

Metonymy, Exclamation, Euphemism, 

Synecdoche, Interrogation, Catachresis, 

Hyperbole, Antithesis, Antonomasia, 

Irony, Climax, Paronomasia. 

1 122. A Simile is a simple comparison; as, 

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. — Byron. 
They shall mount up as eagles. 

1 123. Metaphor is the use of a word in a sense different 
from its original meaning. It expresses the similarity be- 
tween two objects by applying the name, an attribute, or an 
action of the one to the other; as, 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

He was a stay to his aged parents ; To take up arms against a sea 
of troubles ; His sword was a shield to the helpless ; The roots of honor; 
The veins of wealth. 

1 1 24. An Allegory is a series of metaphors so connected 
as to form a parable or fable; as, 

Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt, etc. — Psalm lxxx: 8. 

1 1 25. Metonymy is a change of names by which one 
word is put for another; thus, the cause for the effect, the 
effect for the cause, a place for its inhabitants, a j(g% for the 
thing signified, etc. ; as, 

He purchased Milton and Pollok ; We supposed the measures of 
the government ; that is, of the men who administered the government; 
The army smote the city ; He wielded the scepter ; that is, kingly ptn 

1 126. Synecdoche puts & part for the whole, or the #'/&?& 
for a /tf/?, a species for the genus, or the £?////,? for a species, 
etc. ; as, 

No sheltering rwgf was nigh ; that is, house ; Men shall not live by 
by M 7 ^ alone ; that is, food : All the world looked on indifferently ; 
that is, all who knew of the events. 

1 1 27. Hyperbole is extravagant assertion, or a magnify- 
ing of the ideas to be conveyed, beyond their proper limits; 
as, 

The fugitives outstripped the wind in their flight ; She drowned 
her woes in a flood of tears. 

1 128. Irony asserts the contrary of the meaning intended 
to be conveyed ; as, 

These men are certainly Jwnest ; they would not accept a bribe while 
their fingers are in the public treasury. 

1 129. Personification ascribes life and intelligence to 
inanimate or unintelligent beings; as, 

Hail to thee, blithe spirit! 

Bird thou never wert. — Shelley. 

Come, Inspiration ! from thy hermit seat. — THOMSON. 



PROSODY. 209 

All ye beasts of the field, come to devour, yea, all ye beasts in the 
forest. — Isaiah lvi : 9. 

Then, too, the Old Year dieth, 

And the forests utter a moan. — Longfellow. 

1 130. Apostrophe is an abrupt turning from narration to 
direct address; as, 

Death is swallowed up in victory; Oh death! where is thy sting? Oh 
grave! where is thy victory? 

You all did love him once, not without cause ; 
What cause withholds you then to mourn for him? 
Oh judgment ! thou art Jied to brutish beasts ', 
And i?ien have lost their reason. — Shakespeare. 

1 131. Vision represents the objects of the imagination as 
present to the senses; as, 

I see the rural virtues leave the land ; The combat deepens, on ye 
brave. 

1 132. Exclamation is used to express strong emotion; 

as, 

Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen! — Shakespeare. 

Oh, I could weep my spirit from mine eyes ! — Id, 

1 133. Interrogation puts in the form of a question what 
is meant to be a strong affirmation ; as, 

Hath the Lord said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken 
it ? and shall he not make it good ? 

1 134. Antithesis contrasts things different or entirely 
opposite in character; as, 

Wit exists by antipathy ; Humor by sympathy. — WHIPPLE; Anoint a 
villain and he will prick you ; prick a villain and he will anoint you. — 
Holland ; The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; but the righteous 
are as bold as a lion. — Proverbs. 

Say first, for Heaven hides nothing from thy view, 
Nor the deep tract of Hell. — Milton. 

H. Gram. — 18. 



2IO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 135. Climax is a succession of particulars, each more 
important than the preceding one; as, 

What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite 
in faculties ! in form and moving, how express and admirable ! in ac- 
tion, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a god. — Hamlet. 

1 136. Anti-climax is a series of participles, each of 
which is of less importance than the one preceding it ; as, 

Have not these monsters taken the hunting-grounds of the red men, 
killed their game, thrown down their wigwams, stolen their hatchets, 
and broken their pipes? 

1 137. Paralepsis is a figure by which a speaker pretends 
to pass by something which he really mentions; as, 

I make no mention of the enemy's bad faith and treachery, nor 
will I notice his unscrupulous attempts to array the friendly powers 
against us. 

1 138. Litotes asserts the truth of a proposition by deny- 
ing the contrary; as, 

The boy was no fool ; that is, he was smart enough. 

1 139. Euphemism is the substitution of a delicate or 
softened expression for one that is harsh or disagreeable ; as, 

She has gone to her final resting-place ; Johnson & Co. have stopped 
payment; His accounts were found somewhat confused, for he was 
guilty of e77ibezzlement. 

1 140. Catachresis is the using of a word to express 
something at variance with its true meaning; as, 

Brass coppers : Or taste the smell of dairy. — Thomson. 

1 141. Antonomasia is the use of a proper name, or the 
name of an office, rank, profession, etc., instead of a com- 
mon name; as, 

He is a Hoosier ; My friend is a Benedict; The Queen City. 
Some village Hampden that with dauntless breast 

The little tyrant of his fields withstood ; 
Some mute, inglorious Milton here may rest, 

Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood. — Gray. 



PROSODY. 211 

1 142. Paronomasia, or punning, is a play upon words, 
in which the same word is used in different senses, or words 
of similar sound are placed in antithetic relations to each 
other; as, 

The case is, I 've no case at all, 

And in brief I 've never had a brief. — Saxe. 

To curb his emotions, he sat 

On the cwb-stone the space of a minute. — Id. 

They went and told the sexton, and 
The sexton tolled the bell. — Hood. 

PUNCTUATION. 

1 143. Punctuation is the use of any other characters 
than letters or figures to aid the reader in determining the 
thought of the writer. 

1 144. Punctuation is of four kinds: Rhetorical, Etymolog- 
ical, for Reference, and for the Printer. 

1 145. Rhetorical punctuation is that used to determine 
sentential structure. 

1 146. The rhetorical points are: 

The Period ( . ) The Interrogation (?) 

The Comma (,) The Dash ( — ) 

The Semicolon (;) Parenthesis () 

The Colon (:) Brackets [] 

The Exclamation ( ! ) Quotation Marks (" "), (< '). 

1 147. Rules for Rhetorical Punctuation. — Declarative 

and imperative sentences making complete and detached sense, re- 
quire the period ; as, In every human being there is the wish to ame- 
liorate his own condition. Listen while I tell this story. 

When only pauses of similar length and strength occur within a 
sentence, they require the comma ; as, Still, however, the contest 
continued. 

In a series of words, all of the same part of speech, the comma 
should be used where the conjunction is omitted; as, John, Henry, 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

James, and Anne will please rise. Bones are, in shape, long, short, 
flat, and irregular. 

Dependent phrases or clauses should be set off by the comma ; as, 
Many phrases, which in their natural or usual order do not require 
to be punctuated, are, when inverted, set off by a comma from the 
rest of the sentence. — Wilson. 

The ellipsis of a verb should be indicated by a comma; as, You 
seek wealth, I, honor. 

Words in apposition are generally set off by the comma, but ap- 
positive words forming a compound term, are not separated ; as, Gen- 
eral George Washington, the father of his country, was a man of 
prayer. 

When pauses of two distinct degrees of length and strength occur 
within the same sentence, the weaker requires the comma, the stronger 
the semicolon; as, The judges were removable at his pleasure; the 
juries were nominated by the sheriffs; and in almost all the counties 
of England, the sheriffs were nominated by himself. 

Before as, to wit, namely, and other words of a similar import, when 
they introduce examples, specifications, or enumerations, a semicolon 
should be used ; as, Please send me the following articles ; namely, A 
barrel of sugar, a hogshead of molasses, and a sack of coffee. 

When pauses of three distinct degrees of length and strength oc- 
cur within the same sentence, the feeblest requires the comma ; the 
stronger, the semicolon ; the strongest, the colon ; as, 

Be wise to-day; 'tis madness to defer; 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead: 
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 

Before examples, specifications, and enumerations not introduced 
by the adverbials as, namely, to wit, etc. ; before quotations and ad- 
dresses, and before an additional explanatory remark, the colon should 
be used ; as, The pronominal adjectives are the following : this, that, 
etc., etc. 

A rule is well stated by Pope in his essay on criticism : 

In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold; 
Alike fantastic if too new or old; 
Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. 

Hence has resulted a language capable of expressing, by combinations 
of its own native words, every shade of meaning required even by 



PROSODY. 213 

the teeming brains of that nation of students : a language uniting 
infinite diversity of forms with entire simplicity of materials. 

Interrogation and Exclamation points are used as their names indi- 
cate ; as, When are you coming ? O Absalom ! my son ! my son ! 

Dashes are used to denote broken sense ; as, O my full heart ! — 
But should I give it vent, etc. 

Parenthetical marks include parentheses ; as, Is it possible ? are 
there, on earth (let me not call them men) who lodge a soul immor- 
tal in their breasts, etc. 

Double quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations ; sin- 
gle quotation marks, included or indirect quotations, and quotations 
involved in others; as, 

"Truth crushed to earth, shall rise again; 
The eternal years of God's are her's." 

"But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 
And dies amidst her worshipers." 

"In consequence of this discovery, he was not only forced to relin- 
quish his hopes of the white staff, but was removed from the direc- 
tion of the finances to the more dignified but less lucrative and im- 
portant post of lord president. * I have seen people kicked down 
stairs before,' said Halifax, 'but my Lord Rochester is the first person 
that I ever saw kicked up stairs.'" "He privately admonished him 
1 that if he would but trust to his own merits, glory and regal power 
would spontaneously fall to his lot.'" 

1 148. Etymological punctuation is that used in orthog- 
raphy and orthoepy. 

The etymological points are : 

The Apostrope ( ' ) Accent, Grave ( * ) 

The Caret (V) Accent, Acute (') 

The Diaeresis ( " ) Accent, Circumflex ( " ) 

The Macron ( " ) The Hyphen (-) 

The Breve (" ) The Period ( . ) 

The Tilde ( ~ ) 

1 149- The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of a letter* 
as, Don't, Brown's, O'clock. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 150. The caret is used in the correction of an error of omission 
in the manuscript; as, 

me 
Remember to all my family. 

A 

1 151. The diuresis is used to separate two vowels which would 
otherwise form a diphthong ; as, Zoology. 

1 152. The macron and breve are used to indicate the quantity of 
a syllable ; as, Report. 

1 153. The tilde is a Spanish mark placed over n to give it the 
sound of ny ; as, Canon, pronounced canyon. In English it is only 
used to indicate certain sounds of vowels. 

1 154. The accents are used to denote the accented syllable in a 
word, also to indicate inflection of the voice in the delivery of a 
passage. 

1 155. The hyphen is used to connect the parts of a compound 
word, also to separate a word into its syllables; as, Wood-house, 
Punc-tu-a-tion. 

1 156. The period is used to denote abbreviation; as, Mr. ; N. Y. 

1 157. Punctuation for reference is that used for refer- 
ring the reader to the margin or appendix. 

The points for reference are: 

The Asterisk (*) The Section (§) 

The Obelisk or Dagger ( f ) The Paragraph ( % ) 

The Double Dagger (J) The Index (JS@~) 

The Parallels ( 1 1 ) The Asterism ( %% ) or ( %*). 

These marks are often doubled. Letters and figures are also used 
for reference. 

1 1 58. Punctuation for the printer is that used by the 
writer to direct the printer as to the kind of type to be 
used. 

For italics. A word to be printed in italics must be underscored 
with one line in the manuscript; as, 

Less suggests quantity ; fewer suggests number. 






PROSODY. 215 

For small capitals. A word to be printed in small capitals must 
be underscored with two lines in the manuscript ; as, 

Special Rules for Punctuation. 



For large capitals. A word to be printed in large capitals must 
be underscored with three lines in the manuscript ; as, 

The objective Element. 

For headings. Words designed for headings should be underscored 
with four lines; as, 

The Pronoun. 



PART FIVE. 
ANALYSIS. 

1 159. Analysis is that division of grammar which treats 
of the separation of the sentence into its elements, and of 
determining their relations. 

1 160. A Sentence is an enunciation of thought, includ- 
ing a verb and its subject. 

1161. Classes. — Sentences are classified as to structure, 
and as to the nature of the proposition. 

AS TO STRUCTURE. 

1 1 62. A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one 
proposition, or one verb and its subject. 

Examples. — Horses run. The bird sped swiftly through the air. 

1 163. A Complete Sentence is one whose verb is finite. 
Example. — The news came yesterday. 

1 164. An Abridged Sentence is one whose verb is in 
the infinitive or participial mode. 

Examples. — We expected him to go. Avoiding the sentries, the pris- 
oner escaped. An infinitive abridged sentence is always subordinate ; 
a participial may be subordinate or independent. 

1165. A Complex Sentence is one that contains a com- 
plete subordinate sentence as a constituent part. 

Examples. — A fortune which was gained by years of toil was lost in 

a moment of folly. 

(216) 



ANALYSIS. 217 

1 1 66. A Principal Sentence is the entire complex sen- 
tence with all its subordinate sentences. 

1 167. A Subordinate Sentence is one that is used to 
modify some word or phrase in another sentence. 

Example. — Such is the report which was circulated last night. 

1 168. A Compound Sentence is one that contains two 
or more simple or complex sentences of equal rank. 

Examples. — They came and desired an interview. They who were 
first shall be last, and they who were last shall be first. 

1 1 69. A Partial compound sentence is one in which either 
or both of the principal elements are compound. 

Examples. — -John and James went to the city. John went to the 
city yesterday and returned to-day. John and James went to the city 
yesterday and returned to-day. 

1 170. A Leading Sentence is the first simple or com- 
plex sentence contained in a compound sentence. 

1 171. A Co-ordinate Sentence is any other sentence 
than the first, and of equal rank with it in a compound sen- 
tence. 

AS TO THE NATURE OF THE PROPOSITION. 

1 172. A Declarative Sentence is one that makes an 
assertion. 

Example. — The ship arrived yesterday. 

1 173. An Imperative Sentence is one whose verb is 
in the imperative mode. 

Example. — Go where glory waits thee. 

1174. An Interrogative Sentence asks a question. 
Example.— Did James go to the city? 

Remark. — An interrogative sentence may be subordinate in a de- 
clarative or imperative sentence. 
H. Gram.— 19. 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Examples. — I know what he said. I know who broke the window. 
She asked me where he was going. He told me what he had been 
doing. 

1 175. An Element is any part of a sentence, including 
words, phrases, and subordinate sentences. 

1 1 76. Classes. — Elements are classified as to relative im- 
portance, structure, relation, and bases. 

as to importance: principal, subordinate. 

1 1 77. Principal Elements are those without which a 
sentence can not exist. They are the subject and predicate. 

1 1 78. The Subject is that of which something is as- 
serted. 

Examples. — Mary sings. (It) is sweet to die for one's country. That 
I should do such a thing is improbable. 

Remark. — The subject may be any word, phrase, or sentence used 
as a noun. 

1179- Such word, phrase, or sentence is sometimes called a Sub- 
stantive. 

1 180. The Predicate is the assertion made concerning 
the subject, and consists of an attribute and copula. 

Example. — This apple is sweet. In this sentence * is sweet ' is the 
predicate, of which * sweet' is the attribute and * is ' the copula. 

1 181. The Attribute is that property, quality, character- 
istic, name, or circumstance asserted or assumed of the sub- 
ject by the verb. 

Examples. — January is a cold month. Water is a liquid. 

Explanation. — The term ' assert ' in this definition is used as sig- 
nifying affirm, deny, command, interrogate, including every form of 
finite verb. 

1 1 82. The Copula is that which joins the attribute to the 
subject and makes the assertion. It is generally some form 
of the verb be. 






ANALYSIS. 219 

Examples. — Iron is heavy. Snow is white. 

Remark. — The verb be is hence called the copulative verb, but the 
attribute and copula are frequently combined in the same verb ; as, 
The boy reads ; that is, he is reading. Those verbs which contain 
both the attribute and copula are called attributive verbs. 

1 183. Subordinate Elements are all other than the 
principal elements. They are adjective, adverbial, and ob- 
jective, also connectives. 

Remark. — In infinitive abridgments the subjective element is also 
subordinate. 

1 184. Both Principal and Subordinate elements are subdivided as 
to structure ', relation , and base. 

AS TO STRUCTURE. 

1 185. A Simple Element is one without modifiers, or 
one considered apart from its modifiers. 

Example. — The bird sings sweetly. In this sentence ' sweetly ' is 
a simple adverbial element, unmodified. 'Bird' and * sings' are also 
simple elements when considered apart from their modifiers * the ' and 
* sweetly.' 

1 186. A Complex Element is a simple element with its 
modifiers. 

Examples. — The girls play very merrily. In this sentence ' very 
merrily' is a complex adverbial element limiting 'play,' and 'play 
very merrily' is the complex predicate; 'play' is the simple predicate. 
The simple element is also called the base of a complex element ; 
'merrily' is the base of the complex element 'very merrily.' 

1 187. A Compound Element is one comprising two or 
more simple or complex elements of equal rank connected 
by co-ordinate conjunctions expressed or understood. 

Examples. — William writes smoothly and rapidly. The work was 
performed amidst hardships and great dangers. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



AS TO RELATION. 

1188. An Adjective Element is one that modifies a 
noun or pronoun. 

Examples. — He bought a fine horse. They all went home. 

1 189. An Adverbial Element is one that modifies any- 
thing else than a noun or pronoun, an active transitive verb 
as its object, or an infinitive as its objective subject. 

1 190. An Objective Element is one that is used as the 
object of a transitive verb in the active voice. 

Examples. — Seals eat fish. They came desiring assistance, 

AS TO THE BASE. 

s 

1191. An Element of the First Class is one whose 
base is a single word. 

Example. — The frightened stag ran bounding away. 

Remark. — All the elements in this sentence are of the first class. 

1192. An Element of the Second Class is one whose 
base consists of a preposition and its object, or an infinitive. 

Example. — Henry went to the city. We expect to go immediately. 

Remark. — The subject of the infinitive modifies the infinitive, an 
element of the second class, as its base. In the sentence, She desired 
him to go, 'to go' is the base of the objective element, being the di- 
rect object of the transitive verb desired. ' To go,' an element of the 
second class, is limited by 'him,' a simple subjective element of the first 
class. The subjective element 'him' in this abridged construction is 
subordinate, not principal. The subjective element is always prin- 
cipal in complete sentences. 

1 193. An Element of the Third Class is one whose 
base is a subordinate sentence. 



ANALYSIS. 221 

Examples. — This is the guest whom we have so long expected. That 
he should have resisted such tyrannical exactions is perfectly natural. He 
declared that he never would fail again. 

1 194. A Connective is any word that joins words, 
phrases, or sentences. 

1 195. Classes. — Co-ordinate, Subordinate. 

1 196. A Co-ordinate Connective is one that joins sen- 
tences or elements of equal rank. 

Example. — George will go and bring a bucket of water. 

1197. A Subordinate Connective is one that joins ele- 
ments of unequal rank. 

Example. — I adopted that course because it seemed best. Subor- 
dinate connectives involve three parts of speech; viz., Conjunctions, 
relative pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs. 

DIAGRAMMED ANALYSIS. 

1198. Simple Sentences — Elements of the First 
and Second Classes. 

For the verbal analysis of sentences in this section, see page 228. 

1. I write. 

2. The merchant fulfilled his contract. 

(I j merchant | The 

I write. I fulfilled | contract. | his 

3. He threw the stone almost over the river. 
He 



3- \ Ue / 
t threw 1 



stone I the 
over river. I the 



(almost) 

1 199. Explanation of the Notation used in Diagram- 
ming. — Elements of the same rank stand in the same vertical col- 
umn. Thus the principal elements stated in the first column ; sub- 
ordinate elements of the first degree in the second, and so on. 



less 
. in business 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A bar ( | ) is used for separating and subordinating an element ; as the 
and contract in the second sentence. A brace ({ ) is used for separating, 
subordinating, and co-ordinating two or more elements ; as, a and 
diligent in the fourth sentence. A tie ( () is used for unifying the parts 
of a single element, as in the third, fourth, and fifth sentences under 
Complex Sentences. A vinculum combined with a half brace ( [) is 
used to connect a modifier to the anterior part of a simple element, 
as in the eighth sentence ; the same combination (a vinculum and 
half brace) is used, provided the whole base of a second class ele- 
ment (a preposition and its object,) is modified by an adverbial ele- 
ment. See Example 3. 

The first word of a sentence commences with a capital, wherever 
it may be situated in the diagram. 

4. A man less diligent in business would have failed in 
the enterprise. 

(A 

ian < ( ip 

I diligent \ le 

t ir 

would have failed | in enterprise. | the 

5. Experience give maxims of utility, but rather bitterly 
sometimes. 

' Experience 
5* r maxims | of utility, 

^ gives J but 

I bitterly | rather 

I sometimes. 

Explanation. — Words having no dependent construction are in- 
closed in parentheses. Such are expletives and independent forms. 
"Words supplied to complete constructions are inclosed in brackets. 

6. Follow the path to honor. 

7. Will he deny the charges? 

6. |^ ou ^ /the 7. ( he 

I Follow I path 1 , I Will deny | charges ? | the 

Explanation. — Interrogative sentences are diagrammed as if de- 
clarative, save that the interrogation point is placed at the termina- 
tion. In imperative sentences the subject is supplied in brackets. 



ANALYSIS. 223 

8. To read well is most certainly a valuable accomplish- 
ment. 

f To read | well 

8- "j is accomplishment. < 

I — 1 -ii L <■ valuable 

L [ certainly | most 

1200. Complex Sentences — Elements of the Third 
Class. 

For the verbal analysis of sentences in this section see page 229. 

1. A man who is honest will be respected. 

2. The ship which sailed yesterday was laden with salt. 

A f The 



i'ho 
honest 
will be respected. 



[who 
Lis he 



ship < [which 

I Lsailed | yesterday 
was laden | with salt. 



Explanation. — A subordinate sentence is preceded by a tie, to 
prevent it from appearing as two co-ordinate elements. Words hav- 
ing a double use have a line drawn under them. Such are relative 
pronouns which are used both as connectives and as pronouns ; also 
conjunctive adverbs which are used both as connectives and as mod- 
ifiers. 

3. The hope that better news would come raised their 

sinking spirits. 

f The 

We [ (that) , h H 
t news I better 

[ [would come 

raised I spirits. < . , . 
k I sinking 

4. That the way is difficult is evident. 

5. His wish is that we should come early. 



"(That) 
way I the 
is difficult 
is evident. 



wish I His 

(that) 

we 
is [should come | early. 



6. The joys that cheer us most in life spring from worthy 
acts and good deeds which we have performed. 



224 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



6. 



fThe 
" joys^ ["that f us 

[ [cheer -J most 
[in life 
C from acts ] | worthy 

spring -j and V 

I [from] deeds J | good 



have performed. | which 



7. The faithful dog came when he was called. 

8. The army crossed the river where the passage was 
easiest. 

r a ! The 
d0 £{ faithful 

came 



J he 

' [_ was called. | when 



army | The 

"] river | the 
crossed i- [passage | the 

J [was easiest. | where 



1201. Compound Sentences— Compound Elements. 

For the verbal analysis of sentences in this section, see page 231. 

1. Frankness is certainly commendable, but impudence is 

very offensive. 

Frankness 
is commendable 
[_ certainly 
but 
impudence 
is offensive. | very 

Explanation. — A modifier of the copula is connected with its base 
by a half brace, as in the above diagram, the copulative verb, in such 
cases, being underlined with a vinculum. 

2. The children came with laugh and shout and filled the 

halls with glee. 

children | The 

with laugh 

(and) 
[with] shout 



and 
[they] 

fdled 



{! 



halls I the 
•ith glee. 



ANALYSIS. 



225 



3. They labored diligently and were rewarded with plenty 
and prosperity. 

[They 

[labored | diligently 

and 
'[they] 

fwith plenty 
were rewarded -\ and 

L [with] prosperity. 

1202. Partial Compound Sentences. 

1. The fire blazed and sparkled in the great chimney. 

fire I The 

blazed "1 , , 

and I in chimney. < 
[sparkled J ^ reat 

2. Disease and death reign supreme in war. 



2. 



Disease 

and 
death , 
reign < • 



supreme 
in war. 



1203. Sentences Containing Double Relatives, Ex- 
pletives, and Independent Forms. 

For the verbal analysis of sentences in this section, see page 232. 
i. It was not surely very wise to begin in that manner. 

(It) 

to begin | in manner. | that 
was wise | very 

1 not 

[ surely 

2. I will grant what you request. 

2. I will grant the thing which you request. 

2 f 1 [ the 

' l will grant | thing \ [you 

[ [request. | which 

Explanation. — Double relatives are separated into their equiva- 
lent parts ; the antecedent part belongs in the principal sentence, and 
the relative part in the subordinate sentence. The equivalent of the 
double relative is leaded in the expanded form. 



226 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Heaven and earth! must I remember? 

4. The will! the will! we will hear Caesar's will. 



(Heaven and earth 



r (The will! the will!) 



r i 4. r we 

[must remember? [ [will hear | will. | Caesar's 

5. It is reported by speculators that diamonds have been 
discovered in Arizona. 

(It) (that) 

[diamonds 
have been discovered | in Arizona, 
is reported | by speculators 

1204. Second and Third Class Objective Elements. 

For the verbal analysis of sentences in this section, see page 233. 

1. I expected to go to the city. 

2. He said that the work was already completed. 



-u 



2. 



expected | to go | to city. | the 

f He (that) 

. , J [work I the 

' [was completed. | already 



5. They desired him to accept doctrines which he disbe- 
lieved. 

f They f him 

3" [ desired | to accept 1 1 • [he 

' [disbelieved. I which 

* 4. She wished him to go immediately. 
f ^ e r v 

^ ' *> ( immediately. 

5. I learned many years ago who was the first President. 

[at] years {^ a Q n ^ gone by 

I [ Wh ° p -a ♦ / the 
[ [was President. j fi 



learned ■ .^ 



ANALYSIS. 227 

1205. Predicate Constructions. 

For the verbal analysis of sentences in this section, see page 234. 

i. He was elected governor. 
2. She was named Mary. 

Remark. — These sentences may be analyzed in two ways. 

1 f He 

[ was elected | [to be] governor. 

This form may be expanded thus : 

j fHe f(that) 2 fHe 

[ was elected | he " . " 1 was governor 

[might be I governor. [ by e i ec ting. 

j [She 2 f She 

[ was named | [to be^Mary. ' [ was Mary 

[by naming. 
VERBAL ANALYSIS. 

1206. Programme for Verbal Analysis. 

if Simple, 
as to structure 1 Complex, 
[ Compound, 
f Declarative, 
as to proposition 4 Imperative, 

[ Interrogative. 

2. Give the complex subject. 

3. Give the simple subject. 

(Structure, 
_j ' 
Base. 

5. Give the base of the modifier and describe its modifiers. 

6. Give the complex predicate. 

7. Give the simple predicate. 

f Structure, 

8. Describe the modifiers of the predicate as to J , ' 

[ Base. 

9. Give the base of the modifier and describe its modifiers. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1207. Verbal Analysis Exemplified. 

Explanation. — The numbers of the sentences in the verbal anal- 
ysis correspond to those of the same sentences in the diagrammed 
analysis, and the figures in parentheses correspond to the ' steps ' in 
the programme for verbal analysis given above. 

1208. Simple Sentences. 

1. (1) 'I write' is a simple declarative sentence, of which (3) 'I' 
is the simple subject unmodified, and (7) * write,' the simple pred- 
icate unmodified. 

2. 'The merchant fulfilled his contract,' (1) is a simple declarative 
sentence, of which (2) ' the merchant ' is the complex subject, of which 
(3) 'merchant' is the simple subject, (4) modified by 'the,' a simple 
adjective element of the first class; (6) of which sentence also 'ful- 
filled his contract' is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'fulfilled' 
is the simple predicate, modified by (8) 'his contract,' a complex ob- 
jective element of the first class, of which (9) 'contract,' the base, is 
modified by 'his,' a simple adjective element of the first class. 

4. (1) 'A man less diligent in business would have failed in the 
enterprise,' is a simple declarative sentence of which (2) 'a man less 
diligent in business' is the complex subject, of which (3) 'man' is the 
simple subject, (4) modified by 'a,' a simple adjective element of the 
first class, and 'less diligent' a complex adjective element of the first 
class, of which (5) 'diligent,' the base, is modified by 'less,' a simple 
adverbial element of the first class, and by 'in business,' a simple ad- 
verbial element of the second class, of which sentence also (6) ' would 
have failed in the enterprise,' is the complex predicate, of which (7) 
' would have failed ' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by ' in the 
enterprise,' a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which 
(9.) 'enterprise,' the noun of the base, is modified by 'the,' a simple 
adjective element of the first class. 

5. (1) 'Experience gives maxims of utility, but rather bitterly some- 
times,' is a simple declarative sentence, of which (3) 'experience' is 
the simple subject unmodified, of which sentence also (6) 'gives max- 
ims of utility, but rather bitterly sometimes,' is the complex predicate, 
of which (7) 'gives' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by 'maxims 
of utility,' a complex objective element of the first class, (9) of which 
'maxims,' the base, is modified by 'of utility,' a simple adjective ele- 
ment of the second class. 'Gives' is also (8) modified by 'rather 
bitterly sometimes,' a complex adverbial element of the first class, (9) 



ANALYSIS. 229 

of which * bitterly,' the base, is modified by 'rather,' a simple adver- 
bial element of the first class. The complex base ' rather bitterly ' 
is modified by 'sometimes,' a simple adverbial element of the first 
class. 

6. (1) 'Follow the path to honor' is a simple imperative sentence, 
of which (2) 'you,' understood, is the simple subject, unmodified, of 
which sentence also (6) ' follow the path to honor ' is the complex 
predicate, of which (7) 'follow' is the simple predicate, (8) modified 
by 'the path to honor,' a complex objective element of the first class, 
of which (9) 'path,' the base, is modified by 'the,' a simple adjective 
element of the first class, and by 'to honor,' a simple adjective ele- 
ment of the second class unmodified. 

7. (1) 'Will he deny the charges?' is a simple interrogative sen- 
tence, of which (3) 'he' is the simple subject unmodified, of which 
sentence also, (6) 'will deny the charges,' is the complex predicate, 
of which (7) 'will deny' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by 
'the charges,' a complex objective element of the first class, of which 
'charges,' the base, is (9) modified by 'the,' a simple adjective ele- 
ment of the first class. 

8. (1) 'To read well is most certainly a valuable accomplishment,' is 
a simple declarative sentence, of which (2) ' to read well ' is the com- 
plex subject of the second class, of which (3) 'to read' is the simple 
subject, (4) modified by 'well,' a simple adverbial element of the first 
class, (6) of which sentence also, 'is most certainly a valuable ac- 
complishment,' is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'is accomplish- 
ment' is the simple predicate, of which 'is,' the copula, is modified 
by 'most certainly,' a complex adverbial element of the first class, of 
which 'certainly,' the base, is modified by 'most,' a simple adverbial 
element of the first class, (8) and 'accomplishment,' the attribute, is 
modified by 'valuable,' a simple adjective element of the first class. 

1209. Complex Sentences — Third Class Elements. 

I. (1) 'A man who is honest will be respected,' is a complex de- 
clarative sentence, of which (2) 'a man who is honest,' is the com- 
plex subject, of which (3) 'man' is the simple subject, (4) modified 
by 'a,' a simple adjective element of the first class, and by 'who is 
honest,' a simple adjective element of the third class. It is also a 
simple declarative subordinate sentence, of which (3) 'who' is the 
simple subject, unmodified, also the subordinate connective, and ' is 
honest' the simple predicate. 'Will be respected' is the simple pred- 
icate of the principal sentence, unmodified. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. (1) 'The hope that better news would come raised their sinking 
spirits,' is a complex declarative sentence, of which (2) 'the hope that 
better news would come,' is the complex subject, (3) of which 'hope' 
is the simple subject, (4) modified by 'the,' a simple adjective element 
of the first class, and by 'that better news would come,' a simple ad- 
jective element of the third class. It is also a simple declarative sub- 
ordinate sentence, of which (2) ' better news ' is the complex subject, 
and (7) 'would come,' the simple predicate unmodified. 'That' is a 
connective. The predicate of the principal sentence presents no dif- 
ficulties. 

4. (1) 'That the way is difficult is evident,' is a complex declar- 
ative sentence, of (3) ' that the way is difficult ' is the simple subject 
of the third class, also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of 
which 'that' is an introductory expletive, and (3) 'way,' the simple 
subject modified, etc. ; (7) ' is difficult ' is the simple predicate un- 
modified, 'is' being the copula, 'difficult' the attribute. 'Is evident' 
is the simple predicate of the principal sentence. 

5. (1) 'His wish is that they should improve,' is a complex declar- 
ative sentence, of which (2) 'his wish' is the complex subject, etc., 
and (6) 'is that they should improve' is the simple predicate, of which 
'is' is the copula, and ' that they should improve ' the attribute of the 
third class. It is also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of 
which (3) 'they' is the simple subject unmodified, and (7) 'should 
improve,' the simple predicate unmodified; 'that' is an introductory 
expletive. 

6. (1) 'The joys that cheer us most in life spring from worthy acts 
and good deeds which we have performed,' is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which (2) 'the joys that cheer us most in life,' is the com- 
plex subject, of which (3) 'joys' is the simple subject, (4) modified 
by 'the,' a simple adjective element of the first class, and by 'that 
cheer us most in life,' a simple adjective element of the third class; it 
is also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which (3) 'that ' 
is the connective and simple subject unmodified, (6) of which sen- 
tence also, ' cheer us most in life ' is the complex predicate, of which 
(7) 'cheer' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by 'us,' a simple ob- 
jective element of the first class, and by 'most,' a simple adverbial 
element of the first class; also by ' in life,' a simple adverbial element 
of the second class, of which sentence also (6) ' spring from worthy 
acts and good deeds which we have performed ' is the complex pred- 
icate, of which (7) 'spring' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by 
'from worthy acts and good deeds which we have performed,' a com- 



ANALYSIS. 231 

pound adverbial element of the second class, of which (9) 'acts,' one 
noun of the base, is modified by 'worthy,' a simple adjective element 
of the first class, and 'deeds,' the other noun of the base, is modified 
by 'good,' a simple adjective element of the first class; 'acts' and 
'deeds' are also modified by 'which we have performed,' a simple 
adjective element of the third class. It is also a simple declarative 
subordinate sentence, of which (3) ' we ' is the simple subject unmod- 
ified, of which sentence also (6) 'have performed which' is the com- 
plex predicate, of which (7) ' have performed' is the simple predicate, 
(9) modified by 'which,' a simple objective element of the first class, 
also the connective of the subordinate sentence. 

7. (1) 'The faithful dog came when he was called,' is a complex 
declarative sentence, of which (2) ' the faithful dog ' is the complex 
subject, etc., of which sentence also (6) ' came when he was called ' 
is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'came' is the simple predicate, 
(8) modified by 'when he was called,' a simple adverbial element of 
the third class; (1) 'when he was called' is also a simple declarative 
subordinate sentence, of which (3) 'he' is the simple subject, and 
(7) 'was called' the simple predicate (8) modified by 'when,' a sim- 
ple adverbial element of the first class, also the connective of the 
subordinate sentence. 

1210. Compound Sentences — Compound Elements. 

1. (1) 'Frankness is certainly commendable, but impudence is very 
offensive,' is a compound declarative sentence, of which ' frankness is 
certainly commendable ' is the leading sentence, of which (3) 'frank- 
ness ' is the simple subject unmodified, of which sentence also (6) ' is 
certainly commendable' is the complex predicate, of which 'is,' the 
copula, is modified by ' certainly,' a simple adverbial element of the 
first class ; ' but impudence is very offensive ' is the co-ordinate de- 
clarative sentence, of which ' but ' is the co-ordinate connective, and 
(3) 'impudence' the simple subject unmodified, of which sentence 
also (6) 'is very offensive ' is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'is 
offensive' is the simple predicate, (8) of which 'offensive,' the attri- 
bute, is modified by 'very,' a simple adverbial element of the first 
class. 

2. (1) 'The children came with laugh and shout, and filled the halls 
with glee,' is a compound declarative sentence, of which ' the chil- 
dren came with laugh and shout ' is the leading declarative sentence, 
of which (2) 'the children' is the complex subject, etc., of which 
sentence also (6) ' came with laugh and shout ' is the complex pred- 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

icate, of which (7) * came ' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by 
' with laugh and [with] shout,' a compound adverbial element of the 
second class, connected by ' and,' a co-ordinate connective. (1) 'And 
[they] filled the halls with glee,' is the co-ordinate declarative sen- 
tence, of which 'and' is the co-ordinate connective, and (3) 'they,' 
understood, the simple subject. The analysis of the predicate pre- 
sents no difficulties. 

1211. Partial Compound Sentences. 

I. (1) 'The fire blazed and sparkled in the great chimney,' is a 
partial compound sentence, of which (2) 'the fire' is the complex 
subject, of which (3) 'fire' is the simple subject, (4) modified by 
'the,' a simple adjective element of the first class, of which sentence 
also (6) 'blazed and sparkled in the great chimney,' is the complex 
compound predicate, of which (7) 'blazed and sparkled' is the com- 
pound predicate, (8) modified by 'in the great chimney,' a complex 
adverbial element of the second class, of which (9) ' chimney,' the 
noun of the base, is modified by 'the,' and 'great,' two simple ad- 
jective elements of the first class. 

1212. Expletives — Double Relatives — Independ- 
ent Forms. 

1. (1) 'It was not surely very wise to begin in that manner,' is a 
simple declarative sentence, of which (2) ' it ' is an introductory ex- 
pletive, and ' to begin in that manner ' the complex subject of the 
second class, of which (3) ' to begin ' is the simple subject, (4) mod- 
ified by 'in that manner,' a complex adverbial element of the second 
class, of which (5) 'manner,' the noun of the base, is modified by 
'that,' a simple adjective element of the first class, of which sentence 
also (6) 'was not surely very wise' is the complex predicate, of which 
(7) 'was wise' is the simple predicate, of which (8) 'was,' the copula, 
is modified by ' not surely,' a complex adverbial element of the first 
class, of which 'not,' the base, is modified by 'surely,' a simple ad- 
verbial element of the first class; (8) 'wise,' the attribute, is modified 
by 'very,' a simple adverbial element of the first class. 

2. (1) 'I will grant what you request,' is a complex declarative 
sentence, of which (3) 'I' is the simple subject unmodified, of which 
sentence also (6) 'will grant what you request' is the complex pred- 
icate, of which (7) 'will grant' is the simple predicate, (8) modified 
by 'what you request,' a complex objective element of the first class: 



ANALYSIS. 233 

it is equivalent to, * the thing which you request,' of which (8) 'thing-,' 
the antecedent part, modifies ' will grant ' as an objective element of 
the first class, (9) and is modified by 'which you request,' a simple 
adjective element of the third class. (1) It is also a simple declar- 
ative subordinate sentence, of which (3) 'you' is the simple subject 
unmodified, of which sentence also (6) 'request which' is the com- 
plex predicate, of which (7) 'request' is the simple predicate, (S) 
modified by 'which,' a simple objective element of the first class, also 
the subordinate connective. 

3. (1) 'Heaven and earth! must I remember,' is a simple inter- 
rogative sentence, of which ' heaven and earth ' are independent forms 
of exclamation ; (3) ' I ' is the simple subject unmodified, and (7) 'must 
remember ' the simple predicate unmodified. 

1213. Second and Third Class Objective Elements. 

1. (1) 'I expected to go to the city,' is a simple declarative sen- 
tence, of which (3) 'I' is the simple subject unmodified, of which 
sentence also (6) ' expected to go to the city ' is the complex pred- 
icate, of which (7) 'expected' is the simple predicate, (8) modified 
by 'to go to the city,' a complex objective element of the second 
class, of which (9) 'to go,' the infinitive base, is modified by 'to 
the city,' a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which 
'city,' the noun of the base, is modified by 'the,' a simple adjective 
element of the first class. 

3. (1) 'They desired him to accept doctrines which he disbelieved,' 
is a complex declarative sentence, of which (3) 'they' is the simple 
subject unmodified, of which sentence also (6) 'desired' and all that 
follows is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'desired' is the sim- 
ple predicate, modified by ' him to accept doctrines which he disbe- 
lieved,' a complex objective element of the second class, of which (8) 
'to accept,' the infinitive base, is modified by 'him,' a simple sub- 
jective element of the first class, and by ' doctrines which he dis- 
believed,' a complex objective element of the first class, of which 
'doctrines,' the base, (9) is modified by 'which he disbelieved,' a 
simple adjective element of the third class, also a simple declarative 
subordinate sentence, of which ' he ' is the simple subject unmod- 
ified, of which sentence also (6) 'disbelieved which' is the complex 
predicate, (7) of which 'disbelieved ' is the simple predicate, (8) mod- 
ified by 'which,' a simple objective element of the first class, also 

the connective of the subordinate sentence. 
H. Gram. — 20. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. 'I learned many years ago who was the first President,' is a 
complex declarative sentence, of which (3) 'I' is the simple subject 
unmodified, of which sentence also (6) * learned ' and all that follows 
is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'learned' is the simple pred- 
icate, (8) modified by ' [at] many years ago,' a complex adverbial 
element of the second class, of which 'years,' the noun of the base, 
(9) is modified by 'many' and 'ago,' two simple adjective elements 
of the first class; 'learned' is also (8) modified by 'who was the 
first President,' a simple objective element of the third class; it is 
also a simple interrogative sentence, of which ' who ' is the simple 
subject, an interrogative, of which sentence also (6) ' was the first 
President' is the complex predicate, (7) of which 'was President' is 
the simple predicate, of which 'President,' the attribute, is (8), mod- 
ified by 'the' and 'first,' two simple adjective elements of the first 
class. 

1214. Peculiar Predicate Constructions. 

1. He was elected governor. 

He 

was elected | [to be] governor. 

1". f He 

[ was governor 

( by electing = elected. 

Remark. — Sentences of this character seem to contain two attri- 
butes, but they may be analyzed according to both methods given in 
the diagrams, considering either the participial form of the verb the 
attribute, and the predicate noun the attribute of a subordinate ad- 
verbial sentence, or the predicate noun the attribute, and the parti- 
cipial form in the passive as modifying the copula, as shown by its 
equivalent as given in the second method of diagramming. 

1. ' He was elected governor,' is a simple declarative sentence, of 
which (3) 'he' is the simple subject unmodified, of which sentence 
also ' was elected [to be] governor ' is the complex predicate, of which 
(7) 'was elected' is the simple predicate, (8) modified by '[to be] 
governor,' a simple adverbial element of the second class; (1) also 
an abridged simple declarative sentence, which, expanded, becomes 
'that he should be governor,' of which 'that' is the subordinate 
connective, and (3) 'he' the simple subject, of which sentence also 
(7) 'should be governor' is the simple predicate, of which 'should 
be' is the copula and 'governor' the attribute. The second method 



[ 



ANALYSIS. 235 

makes the first sentence equivalent to, * He was governor by electing. 5 
Thus 'governor' is put in the predicate after 'was,' meaning the same 
thing as the subject, and ' elected ' is resolved into the equivalent 
adverbial phrase 'by electing.' (1) 'He was governor by electing,' 
is a simple declarative sentence, of which (3) 'he' is the simple sub- 
ject unmodified, of which sentence also (6) ' was governor by elect- 
ing ' is the complex predicate, of which (7) 'was governor' is the 
simple predicate, of which (8) 'was,' the copula, is modified by 'by 
electing,' a simple adverbial element of the second class; 'governor' 
is the attribute unmodified. 

1215. "Grammatical and Logical Subjects" — "In- 
direct Objects." 

1. He gave me an apple. 

2. They awarded him a diploma. 

3. She taught me grammar. 

1216. Explanations. — The Logical Subject is the real or true 
subject of the action of state or being expressed by the verb, and is 
generally the grammatical subject also. 

1217- The Grammatical Subject is that subject with which the verb 
agrees ; it is sometimes only the apparent subject, in consequence of 
an illogical arrangement of the sentence, sanctioned by good usage. 

Remark. — It is an incorrect use of terms to call the simple subject 
of a sentence the grammatical subject, and the complex subject the 
logical, since both the simple and complex subjects are generally both 
equally grammatical and logical. 

In the sentence, 'He gave me an apple,' 'he' is both the logical 
and grammatical subject ; but when the construction is changed from 
the active to the passive, as, An apple was given me by him, the gram- 
matical subject is changed, being 'apple,' which is the logical or true 
subject also. This other passive form is also very common. ' I was 
given an apple.' Here ' I ' is the grammatical subject, but evidently 
not the logical or true subject, since ' I ' does not represent the re- 
ceiver of the action. This last expression is therefore rejected by 
most grammarians, but is in my opinion warranted by sufficient usage. 
Even Dr. Bullions, though rejecting this arrangement as 'loose' and 
'illogical,' in his critical discussions uses the same form of expression 
repeatedly. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1 21 8. The second sentence may be diagrammed in three ways. 
Thus : 



2'. 



[ awarded { ^] o ^, ^ } (actively.; 

f diploma I A . m 

L wasawarded {by them. 

, , f fwithl diploma I a 
l was awarded Uy them. 



(passively.) 



In the active sentence, ' they ' is both the logical and grammatical 
subject. In the second diagram, ' diploma ' is the grammatical and 
logical subject. In the third diagram, 'he' is the grammatical sub- 
ject, while the true object of the active verb * diploma ' (which ought 
logically to become the subject of the passive — see Sec. 1010) has be- 
come an adverbial element. The first and third sentences are di- 
agrammed thus : 



(Jt e ve j[to]me 
L fe ( apple. I an 

f apple J An e 

I was given J k y J him . 

[wasgiven{t wit h I l] n a PP le l an 



. f She c 
3 • [ taught {§ 



[to] me. 

f Grammar f r , n 
[ was taught { %\£ 

[was taught {^. ammar 



Remark. — Sentences of this character seem, at first, to have two 
objects; but the diagrams plainly show one of them to be an adver- 
bial element. There can be no indirect object, it is a contradiction 
in terms. The word object signifies placed against or opposed, not 
on one side or indirectly, but directly. This modifier, then, that some 
grammarians call the indirect object, is always very plainly an adver- 
bial element. There is no special objection, however, to calling the 
object of a preposition the 'remote object' of a verb. 



ANALYSIS. 237 



ABRIDGMENT. 

1219. Abridgment is that part of analysis which treats 
of contracting sentences by rejecting connectives, suppress- 
ing subjects of verbs, and changing the verbs from the finite 
modes into infinitives and participles. 

1220. An Abridged Sentence is one whose verb is an 
infinitive or participle; as, 

They came to see the city ; We had not thought of his coining so soon, 

1221. Classes. — As to Function — As to Structure. 

1222. As to Function, abridged sentences are substantive, 
adjective, and adverbial. 

1223. A Substantive abridged sentence is one that is 
used as the subject or object of a verb; as, 

To play is pleasant ; They expected him to deliver an address. 

1224. An Adjective abridged sentence is one that mod- 
ifies a noun or pronoun; as, 

A man acting dishonestly will fail in business. 

1225. An Adverbial abridged sentence is one that fills 
the office of an adverb ; as, 

They came to ask a favor. 

1226. As to Structure abridged sentences are divided into 
infinitive, participial, and absolute. 

1227. An Infinitive abridged sentence is one whose lead- 
ing word of construction is an infinitive. 

1228. A Participial abridged sentence is one whose lead- 
ing word of construction is a participle. 

1229. An Absolute abridged sentence is one whose lead- 
ing word of construction is the nominative case absolute. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1230. Method Of Abridgment. — Remove the connective, 
change the subordinate finite verb to an infinitive or participle, and 
suppress its subject, provided it is the same as the subject or object 
of the finite verb on which the infinitive depends. 

1231. Subject of the Subordinate Clause. 

1232. When the subject of the subordinate sentence is different 
from the subject or object of the leading sentence, the subject of the 
abridged sentence may be in the nominative, possessive, or objective case. 

Thus : 

1233* I n tne nominative; as, When night comes, animated nature 
seeks repose. Equivalent to, Night coming, animated nature seeks re- 
pose. 

1234. In the possessive; as, I was not aware that he had left. 
Equivalent to, I was not aware of his leaving. 

1235. I n tne objective; as, I desired that he might read. Equiv- 
alent to, I desired him to read. 

1236. Attribute of the Subordinate Clause. 

1237. The attribute of the predicate in the abridged clause is put 
in the objective when the subject is in the objective ; as, We thought 
it to be them. 

1238. The attribute of the abridged clause is in the nominative 
when its subject is in the nominative or possessive; as, John, being a 
boy, was unable to labor continuously ; His being a student was no 
reason for his being a savage. 

1239. Analysis of Abridged Sentences. 

1240. Order Of Analysis. — 1. Analyze in the abridged form. 
2. Expand the sentence by supplying the connective and subject, and 
changing the verb to a finite mode. 3. Analyze in the complete form. 

In diagramming give both forms. Thus : 

i. I wish to read law. 

2. They detected his dissembling. 

[ wish I to read | law. 
1". I wish that I could read law. 



ANALYSIS. 



239 



(that) 



wish 



(i 



could read | law. 



2 f The y 

[ detected | dissembling. | his 
2". They detected that he dissembled. 
' They 



detected ,? 



(that) 

he 

dissembled. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR PARSING 
AND ANALYSIS. 

1 241. I. Horses run. Girls study. 

2. Great men inspire us. 

3. vSuch beauty is transitory. 

4. A competence is doubtless desirable. 

5. Genius is enthusiasm. 

6. Talent is perseverance. 

7. Industry is the primal blessing. 

8. The love of work is the love of truth. 

9. Laziness is a living lie. 

10. A man of ideas is a man of study and observation. 

11. A successful man controls circumstances, and is not controlled 
by them. 

12. A little mind attends to several things at once. 

13. A great mind gives itself solely to one thing at a time. 

14. Knowledge may be weakness. 

15. Power is knowledge put in practice. 

16. A man should reflect on his life. 

17. He descended to the luxuriant plain. 

18. The natural world contains the most beautiful scenery. 

19. Man has always worshiped something. 

20. Our real wants are not numerous. 

21. Pride goes before a fall. 

* 22. I can not go to the city to-day. 

23. The greatest men very frequently have striking peculiarities. 

24. He will be with you in prosperity and adversity. 

25. A woman less vigorous in intellect would not have succeeded 
at all in so difficult an enterprise. 

26. English literature is no common debtor to the Bible. 

27. The Puritans were a brave, wise, and useful body of men. 

28. No vicious family regards the Sabbath. 

29. Where was there a braver army than that under Julius Cassar ? 

30. The style of Bunyan is delightful to every reader. 

(240) 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 241 

31. The same God is the author of the visible and invisible world. 

32. He who stands up and fights for the right, will always be 
abused. 

33. To debate with your conscience is not wise. 

34. That you are able to find gross errors within the church, does 
not justify you in condemning it. 

35. It is no easy task to learn to play well upon an instrument. 

36. It is not safe for a young man to spend all he can earn. 

37. Christianity does not teach that it is wrong to enjoy the good 
things of this life. 

38. It is evident to all that the mind of the judge was biased. 

39. Why will day never come ? 

40. Can we expect a useful life without earnest preparation? 

41. Where shall we look for aid in case of his failure to help us? 

42. Bring all thy tithes into the store-house. 

43. A stranger who was weary stopped at our gate. 

44. An idea which was pressing its way onward he could not with- 
stand. 

45. An employer prefers an employe whom he can trust out of 
sight. 

46. Where is the man who will deny it? 

47. What possesses the boy that he should act so ? 

48. That I was wrong is evident. 

49. I am confident that you will soon see it as I do. 

50. Be careful that you attend to my directions. 

51. If you come early you will get the best seat. 

52. The truly great man does not scorn little acts of kindness. 

53. It is necessary for you to come early. 

54. It is thought that he will succeed beyond all precedent. 

55. It is enough for him to say so. 

56. It is imprudent for us all to be absent from the house to-night. 

57. What will it avail that he promises aid? 

58. Let it be understood that I am unchangeably opposed to the 
measure. 

59. It is warm enough to melt the snow. 

60. It is ten o'clock now. 

61. It is Jane. Is it they? 

62. Was it you? Is it possible that it was you that knocked? 

63. Harley sat down on a large stone, by the way-side, to take a 
pebble from his shoe, when he saw, at some distance, a beggar ap- 
proaching him. 

H. Gram. — 21. 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

64. All that the wisdom of the proud can teach is, to be stubborn 
or sullen under misfortunes. — Goldsmith. 

65. The most covetous of mankind would, with small exultation, 
I presume, accept riches of this kind on these terms. — Ruskin. 

66. Political economy consists simply in the production, preserva- 
tion, and distribution, at fittest time and place, of useful or pleasur- 
able things. — Id. 

67. The perfect liberty of any faculty of the mind lies within the 
range of its office. — Holland. 

68. The mind that has become a treasure house of truth and beauty 
speaks a world into existence with every utterance. — Id. 

69. It is not difficult to conceive, however, that for many reasons 
a man writes much better than he lives. — Johnson. 

70. When we consider the liberty of man, we see that he is free to 
accept or reject the life that has been given to him. — Baring-Gould. 

71. The traveler stopped to ask what was the matter. 

72. The witness pretended to tell what he knew about the matter. 

73. Said he, " They 're only pegs, 

But there 's as wooden members quite 
As represent my legs." — Hood. 

74. He asked who broke the window. 

75. Well did they know who was the first aggressor. 

76. Is it not sweet to think, hereafter, 

When the spirit leaves this sphere, 
Love, with deathless wings, shall waft her 

To those she long hath mourned for here ? — MOORE. 

77. Not only around our infancy 

Doth heaven with all its splendors lie ; 

Daily with souls that cringe and plot 

We Sinais climb and know it not. — Lowell. 

78. I know where the timid fawn abides 

In the depths of the shaded dell, 
Where the leaves are broad and the thicket hides 
With its many stems and its tangled sides, 

From the eye of the hunter well. — Bryant. 

79. Other creature here, 
Beast, bird, insect, or worm, durst enter none.— MlLTON. 






EXAMPLES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 243 

80. I wish it to be distinctly understood that I know nothing of 
his whereabouts. 

81. He declared it to be his opinion that the man only claimed 
what was his own. 

82. It should always be borne in mind that, in order to the in- 
telligent study of grammar, whose office it is to teach "to speak and 
write correctly," pupils must be constantly exercised in this practical 
use, that the principles which the grammar teaches may be practi- 
cally exemplified, and power be gained in their application. — Bull- 
ions' Grammar. 

83. As it is the business of the philosopher not to make a law of 
nature, or to dictate how her operations should be performed, but by 
close observation to ascertain what those laivs are, and to state them 
for the information of others ; so the business of the grammarian is, 
not to make the laws of the language, for language is before grammar, 
but to observe and note those principles, and forms, and modes of 
speech, by which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, 
and to arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules 
for the guidance and assistance of others. — Id. 

84. For thee, who, mindful of the unhonored dead, 

Dost in these lines their artless tale relate, 
If chance, by lonely contemplation led, 
Some kindred spirit shall inquire thy fate, 

85. Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 

"Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, 
Brushing, with hasty step, the dews away, 

To meet the sun upon the upland lawn." — Gray. 

86. When thoughts 

Of the last bitter hour, come like a blight 

Over thy spirit, and sad images 

Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, 

And breathless darkness, and the narrow house, 

Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart ; 

Go forth into the open sky, and list 

To nature's teaching, while from all around 

Comes a still voice .... 

87. The hills, 

Rock-ribbed, and ancient as the sun ; the vales, 
Stretching in pensive quietness between 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The venerable woods ; rivers that move 

In majesty, and the complaining brooks 

That make the meadows green ; and, poured round all, 

Old ocean's gray and melancholy waste, 

Are but the solemn decorations all 

Of the great tomb of man 

88. Winding along, at break of day, 

And armed with helm and spears, 
Along the martyr's rocky way, 

A king comes, with his peers ; 
Unto the eye a splendid sight, 
Making the air all richly bright, 

Seen flashing through the trees ; 
But to the heart a scene of blight, 

Sadder than death were these. — Miss Jewsbury. 

89. It was not what I stated, if he asserted it to be his opinion 
that I was mistaken, in declaring it to be mine, that John Smith is 
involved in irretrievable ruin. 

90. O woman ! lovely woman ! Nature made thee 

To temper man ; we had been brutes without you. 
Angels are painted fair to look like you; 
There 's in you all that we believe of heaven, 
Amazing brightness, purity, and truth, 
Eternal joy, and everlasting love. — Otway. 

.91. Misses, the tale that I relate, 
This lesson seems to carry ; 
Choose not alone a proper mate, 

But proper time to marry. — COWPER. 

92. There is in souls a sympathy with sounds; 
And as the mind is pitched, the ear is pleased 
With melting airs, or martial, brisk, or grave ; 
Some chord in unison with what we hear 

Is touched within us and the heart replies. 
How soft the music of those village bells, 
Falling at intervals upon the ear 
In cadence sweet! — Cowper. 

93. Me, let the tender office long engage 
To rock the cradle of reposing age, 

With lenient arts extend a mother's breath, 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 245 

Make languor smile, and smooth the bed of death ; 

Explore the thought, explain the asking eye, 

And keep a while one parent from the sky. — Pope. 

94. Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the fault I see ; 
That mercy I to others show, 
That mercy show to me. — Id. 

95. How loved, how honored once avails thee not, 
To whom related, or by whom begot; 

A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; 

'Tis all thou art and all the proud shall be! — Id. 

96. Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ; 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 

We first endure, then pity, then embrace. — Id. 

97. To be or not to be, that 's the question. It is better to be 
a king and die than to live and be a prince. Whatever thy hand 
findeth to do, do it with thy might. We have to do it. Lycurgus, 
the Spartan lawgiver, is said to have been born in the nine hundred 
and twenty-sixth year before Christ. Romulus is said to have founded 
Rome. — Selected from Bullions' Grammar. 

98. Simonides being asked by Dionysius what God was, desired a 
day's time to consider of it before he made his reply 

99. I shall only add, under this head, that when we have raised 
our notion of this infinite Being as high as it is possible for the mind 
of man to go, it will fall infinitely short of what he really is. 

100. This would imprint in our minds such a constant and unin- 
terrupted awe and veneration as that which I am here recommend- 
ing. — Addison. 

101. I was quickly distinguished as a wit by the ladies, a species 
of beings only heard of at the university, whom I had no sooner the 
happiness of approaching than I devoted all my faculties to the ambi- 
tion of pleasing them 

102. He that hopes to be conceived as a w T it in female assemblies, 
should have a form neither so amiable as to stj'ike with admiration, 
nor so coarse as to raise disgust ; with an understanding too feeble to 
be dreaded, and too forcible to be despised. — Johnson. 

103. There were betwixt the trees, growing naturally on their own 
roots, some stakes fixed in the earth, which, with the trees, were in- 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

terwoven with ropes, made of heath and birch twigs, up to the top 
of the Cage, it being of a round or rather oval shape. — Scott. 

104. // is difficult for the most cool-headed impostor long to per- 
sonate an enthusiast, without in some degree believing what he is so 
eager to have believed. — Id. 

105. I was born to a small hereditary estate, which, according to 
the tradition of the village where it lies, was bounded by the same 
hedges and ditches in William the Conqueror's time that it is at pres- 
ent. — Addison. 

106. Whether this might proceed from a lawsuit which was then 
depending in the family, or my father's being a justice of the peace, 
I can not determine. — Id. 

107. Cicero remarks that not to know what has been transacted in 
former times, is to continue always a child. — Johnson. 

108. From beneath the flap of an enormous pocket of a soiled vest 
of embossed silk, heavily ornamented with tarnished silver lace, pro- 
jecied an instrument [a tuning fork], which, from being seen in such 
martial company, might have been easily mistaken for some mischiev- 
ous and unknown implement of war. — COOPER. 

109. Who can flatter himself that the study of a long life would 
have enabled him to discover the principles of geometry, when he sees 
them yet unknown to so many nations, whom he can not suppose less 
liberally endowed with natural reason than the Egyptians or Grecians. — 
Johnson. 

1 10. O for a glance of heavenly day, 
To take this stubborn heart away ; 
And thaw, with beams of love divine, 

This heart, this frozen heart of mine. — Hart. 
hi. Let then, O God! thy servant dare 
Thy truth in all its power to tell; 
Unmask the priestly thieves, and tear 
The Bible from the grasp of hell! — Whittier. 

112. High Heaven, that heard the solemn vow, 

That vow reneiued shall daily hear, 
Till in life's latest hour I bow, 

And bless in death a bond so dear. — Doddridge. 

113. And the plain ox, 

That harmless, honest, guileless animal, 
In zvhat has he offended? — Thompson. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 247 

114. Long in its dim recesses pines the spirit, 

' Wildered and dark, despairingly alone ; 
Though many a shape of beauty wander near it, 

And many a wild and half-remembered tone 
Tremble from the divine abyss to cheer it, 

Yet still it knows that there is only one 
Before whom it can kneel and tribute bring, 
At once a happy vassal and a King. — Lowell. 

115. Let cares like a wild deluge come, 

Let storms of sorrow fall, — 
So I but safely reach my home, 

My God, my heaven, my all. — Watts. 

116. Now night her course began, and over Heaven 
Inducing darkness, grateful truce imposed, 

And silence on the odious din of war. — MlLTON. 

117. Behind us at our evening meal 

The gray bird ate his fill ; 
Swung downward by a single claw, 
He -wiped his hooked bill. 

118. What if God, willing to shew his wrath, and to make his pcnver 
known, endured with much long-suffering the vessels of wrath fitted to 
destruction? — Rom. ix: 22. 

119. And let this feeble body fail, 

And let it faint or die ; 
My soul shall quit this mournful vale, 
And soar to worlds on high. 

120. O what are all my sufferings here, 

If, Lord, thou count me meet 
With that enraptured host to appear, 
And worship at thy feet ! — C. Wesley. 

121. And when the barbarians saw the venomous beast hang on his 
hand, they said among themselves, No doubt this man is a murderer, 
whom, though he hath escaped the sea, yet vengeance suffereth not 
to live. — Acts xxviii : 4. 

122. Each year to ancient friendship adds a ring, 
As to an oak, and precious more and more, 
Without deservingness or help of ours, 

They grow, and silent, wider spread, each year, 
Their unbought ring of shelter or of shade. — Lowell. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

1242. Programme for Parsing Nouns. 

(1) Species? (2) Class? (3) (Sub-class?) (4) Person? (5) 
Number? (6) Gender? (7) Case? (8) Construction? (9) 
Rule? 

1243. Programme for Parsing Pronouns. 

(1) Species? (2) Class? (3) (Sub-class?) (4) Antecedent? 
r (6) Person? 
(5) Agreement \ (7) Number? (9) Rule? (10) Case? 
I (8) Gender? 

(il) Construction? (12) Rule? 

NOMINATIVES. 
DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS, 

1244. Subject of a Finite Verb. 

The messenger came while we were absent. 

Messenger is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) 
common, (7) nominative, (8) subject of the verb 'came,' (9) 
Rule XV.i 

We is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the com- 
pany 2 of which the speaker is one, (5) with which it agrees 
in the (6) first, (7) plural, (8) common, (9) Rule VI, (10) nom- 
inative, (11) subject of 'were,' (12) Rule XV. 



1 The figures in parentheses in the written parsings give the successive 
steps as laid down in the programme. 

2 The logical idea abbreviated for parsing into the expression "company 
of which the speaker is one," is " the names of the persons of the company 
of which the speaker is one." (See page 86, Art. 436, Remark.) 
(248) 






PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 249 

1245- Nominative in the Predicate. 

James is a lawyer. 

Lawyer is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) 
masculine, (7) nominative, (8) in the predicate with the in- 
transitive verb 'is' referring to the same thing as its subject, 
'James,' (9) Rule XIV. 

NOMINATIVES IN APPOSITION. 

1246. Nominative in Apposition with a single word. 

Cortez, he who tortured Montezuma, was a Spaniard. 

He is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent 'Cortez,' (5) 
with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) singular, (8) mascu- 
line, (9) Rule V, (10) nominative, (11) in apposition with 'Cor- 
tez,' (12) Rule XIII. 

1247. Nominative in Apposition with a phrase. 

His opposing the measure y an action attributed to his 
personal dislike of its originator, was the salva- 
tion of the country. 

Action is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, 
(7) nominative, (8) in apposition with the phrase, 'his oppos- 
ing the measure,' (9) Rule XIII, Arts. 211, 212, 968. 

1248. Nominative in Apposition with a sentence. 

The governor pardoned the criminal, an act of clem- 
ency which was generally condemned. 

Act is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, 
(7) nominative, (8) in apposition with the sentence 'The gov- 
ernor pardoned the criminal,' (9) Rule XIII, Arts. 211, 212, 
969. 

"it" as a nominative. 

1249. It expletive. 

7? was necessary that he should go. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

It is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the subordinate 
sentence * that he should go,' (5) with which it agrees in the 
(6) third, (7) singular, (8) neuter, (9) Rule V, Art. 920, (10) 
nominative by expletion, (11) being the apparent or grammat- 
ical subject of 'was,' (12) Rules XV, XXIV. 

1250. It introductory. 

// was James and Henry who were here. 

It is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent, James and 
Henry, which it introduces, but (5) with which it does not agree 
according to Art. 302, (6) third, (7) singular, (8) neuter, (10) 
nominative, (11) subject of 'was,' Rule XV. 

1 25 1. It suggestive, antecedent understood. 

// rains. 

It is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) antecedent, weather under- 
stood, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) singular, 
(8) neuter, (9) Rule V, Art. 303, (10) nominative, (II) sub- 
ject of 'rains,' (12) Rule XV, Art. 303. 

In other examples : It is nine o'clock ; // is very muddy to-day ; 
It has been a very hard winter ; // suggests in each connec- 
tion very definitely its antecedent, and thus should rather be 
called the 'definite #,' than Ht used indefinitely,' as many gram- 
marians designate it. 

1252. Double Relatives as Nominatives. 

What merely embellishes is not what we want. 
The thing which merely embellishes is not the thing 
which we want. 

Remark. — The words with dotted lines beneath indicate the equiv- 
alency of the double relative. The pupil should always be required 
to expand the sentence before parsing the equivalents of 'what.' 

What is a (1) pronoun, (2) relative, (3) double, equivalent to the 
thing which. Thing, the antecedent part, is a (1) noun, (2) com- 
mon, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, (7) nominative, (8) sub- 
ject of 'is,' (9) Rule XV. Which, the relative part, is a (1) 






PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 251 

pronoun, (2) relative, (4) its antecedent 'thing,' (5) with which 
it agrees in the (6) third, (7) singular, (8) neuter, (9) Rule V, 
(10) nominative, (11) subject of 'embellishes,' (12) Rule XV. 

Whatever money was in the purse is mine. 

That money whichever was in the purse is mine. 

Whatever is a (1) pronoun, (2) relative, (3) double, compound, 
equivalent to, that whichever. That, the antecedent part, is 
an adjective pronominal, limits 'money,' Rule I. Whichever is 
a (1) pronoun, (2) relative, (3) compound ; (4) its antecedent, 
'money,' (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) singular, 
(8) neuter, (9) Rule V, (10) nominative, (11) subject of 'was,' 
(12) Rule XV. 

1253. As as a relative. 

Such [ ] as choose may go. 

As is a (1) pronoun, (2) relative, (4) its antecedent 'persons' un- 
derstood, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) plural, 
(8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) nominative, (11) subject of 
'choose,' (12) Rule XV. 



INTERROGATIVES. 

1254. Who interrogative in a direct question. 

Who goes there? 

Who is a (1) pronoun, (2) interrogative, its antecedent, the noun 
which will answer the question, (5) with which it agrees in 
person, number, and gender unknown (since the answer is not 
given), Rule V, (10) nominative, (11) subject of 'goes,' (12) 
Rule XV. 

I2 55- Who interrogative in an indirect question. 

I know who he was. 

Who is a (1) pronoun, (2) interrogative, (4) its antecedent, answer 
of question, (5) with which it agrees in person, number, and 
gender unknown (since the answer is not given), (9) Rule V, 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(10) nominative, (11) in the predicate with the intransitive verb 
' was,' referring to the same thing as its subject, 'he,' Rule XIV. 

1256. What interrogative in an indirect question. 

I know what made the noise. 

What is a (1) pronoun, (2) interrogative, (4) its antecedent answer 
of question, with which it agrees in person, number, and gen- 
der unknown (since the answer is not given), (9) Rule V, (10) 
nominative, subject of 'made,' (12) Rule XV. 

1257. Predicate nominative with a participle. 

His being a judge is no reason why he should violate 
the law. 

Judge is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) mas- 
culine, (7) nominative, (8) in the predicate with the participle 
'being,' (9) Rule XI V, Art. 984. In the expanded form the 
subordinate sentence reads, 'that he is a judge,' in which sen- 
tence judge is nominative in the predicate with the intransitive 
verb 'is' referring to the same thing as its subject, 'he.' In 
the abridged form the verb ' is ' is changed to the participle 

* being ' and its subject 'he' to the possessive 'his'; judge, the 
nominative in the predicate, remains unchanged in construction, 
and is therefore nominative in the predicate with the participle 

* being,' in violation of Rule XIV. 

INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS IN THE NOMINATIVE. 

1258. Nominative absolute by direct address. 

John, are you going to the city to-day ? 

John is a (1) noun, (2) proper, (4) second, (5) singular, (6) mas- 
culine, (7) nominative, (8) absolute by direct address, (9) Rule 
XXII. 

1259. Nominative absolute by exclamation. 

O mercy ! what will become of us ? 

Mercy is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, 
(7) nominative, (8) absolute by exclamation, (9) Rule XXII. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 253 

1260. Nominative absolute by inscription. 

Paradise Lost (used as a title). 

Paradise Lost is a (1) noun, (2) proper, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) 
neuter, (7) nominative, (8) absolute by inscrip., (9) Rule XXII. 

1261. Nominative absolute by pleonasm. 

The boys, they were supposed to be lost. 

Boys is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) plural, (6) mascu- 
line, (7) nominative, (8) absolute by pleonasm, (9) Rule XXII. 

1262. Nominative absolute with a participle. 

The moon rising, the ghostly trees threw their long 
shadows across the silent landscape. 

Moon is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, 

(7) nominative, (8) absolute with the participle 'rising,' (9) Rule 
XXII. 

POSSESSIVES. 

1263. Limiting a noun of different signification. 

John's hat was lost, but mine is here. 

John's is a (1) noun, (2) proper, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) mascu- 
line, (7) possessive, (8) limiting 'hat,' (9) Rule XIX. 

1264. Limiting a noun as its attribute. 

That book is yours. 

Yours is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent, the person 
spoken to, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) second, (7) sin- 
gular, (8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) possessive, in the predicate 
limiting the subject 'book' as its attribute, (12) Rule XIX. 

1265. Limiting a participle. 

There is no necessity for their leaving so soon. 

Their is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the persons 
spoken of, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) plural, 

(8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) possessive, (n) limiting the par- 
ticiple 'leaving,' Rule XIX, and Art. 1060. 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for a glance of heavenly day, 
To take this stubborn heart away; 
And thaw, with beams of love divine, 
This heart, this frozen heart of mine. 

1266. Mine is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the 
person speaking, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) first, (7) 
singular, (8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) possessive, (11) limiting 
'being' understood, (12) Rule XIX. 

Remark. — 'Mine,' in the above example, may be more properly 
parsed as a possessive used by enallage for the objective ; thus, 

1267. Mine is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the 
person speaking, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) first, (7) 
singular, (8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) possessive by enallage 
used for the objective, me, object of the preposition 'of,' Rule 
XVIII. 

1268. Limiting a noun of the same signification. 
He stopped at Mr. Norton, the tailors shop. 

Tailor's is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) mas- 
culine, (7) possessive, (8) in apposition with Norton, which does 
not take the possessive sign, Art. 232, (9) Rule XIII. 

1269. Possessive expletive. 

1 never thought of its being wrong that I should 

smoke. 
Its is a pronoun ; its antecedent is the clause ' that I should smoke,' 
etc. 

OBJECTIVES. 

1270. Object of a transitive verb. 

Henry brought a new book from the city to-day. 
Book is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, 
(7) objective, (8) object of 'brought,' (9) Rule XVII. 

1271. Object of a preposition. 

Our friend came to town yesterday. 
Town is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) neuter, 
(7) objective, (8) object of the preposition 'to,' (9) Rule XVIII. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 255 

1272. Objective subject of an infinitive. 

I took him to be an honest man. 

Him is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the person 
spoken of, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) sin- 
gular, (8) masculine, (9) Rule V, (10) objective, (11) subject 
of the infinitive 'to be,' (12) Rule XVI. 

1273- Objective in the predicate with an infinitive. 

The nation thought him to be a statesman. 

Statesman is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) 
masculine, (7) objective, (8) in the predicate with the intran- 
sitive verb 'to be ' referring to the same thing as its subject, 
'him,' (9) Rule XIV. 

1274- Objective in apposition. 

The officers captured Smith, the leader of the gang. 

Leader is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) singular, (6) mas- 
culine, (7) objective, (8) in apposition with 'Smith,' Rule XIII. 

1275- It expletive as an objective. 

I thought it [ ] absurd that he should advocate 
such claims. 

It is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the clause 'that 
he should advocate such claims,' (5) with which it agrees in 
the (6) third, (7) singular, (8) neuter, (9) Rule V, (10) ob- 
jective, expletive, (11) apparent or grammatical subject of the 
infinitive 'to be' understood, (12) Rule XVI, Art. 306, the 
antecedent clause being the real or logical subject of the verb . 
'to be.' 

OBJECTIVES BY ENALLAGE. 

1276. Objective subject of finite verb. 

Angel songs, ///^thinks I hear them. 

Me is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent is the person 
speaking, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) first, (7) singular, 
(8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) objective by enallage, (11) sub- 
ject of the verb 'thinks,' Art. 325. 



256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1277- Objective used for nominative absolute. 
Ah me! what a pity! 

Me is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the person 
speaking, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) first, (7) singular, 
(8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) objective by enallage, (11) used 
for the nominative / by enallage, Art. 326. 

1278. Objective in the predicate with a finite verb. 

It is them.* 

Them is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the persons 
spoken of, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) plural, 
(8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) objective by enallage, used for 
the nominative 'they,' (12) Art. 327, in the predicate with the 
intransitive verb 'is' referring to the same thing as its subject, 
'it.' 

1279. Objective "whom" used for "who." 

Solomon, than whom there never was a wiser, says, 
"Wisdom is more precious than rubies. 7 ' 

Whom is a (1) pronoun, (2) relative, (4) its antecedent 'Solomon,' 
(5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) singular, (8) mas- 
culine, Rule V, (9) objective, (n) used by enallage for the 
nominative 'who,' and is equivalent to 'and he,' Art. 328. By 
expanding, the above sentence reads, Solomon, and there never 
was a wiser than he [was], says, etc., thus separating 'whom' 
into its elements, the conjunction and and the pronoun he. It 
is thus shown that the objective ' whom ' is used by enallage 
for the nominative who, and is not the object of the conjunc- 
tion 'than,' as some grammarians affirm. 

1280. Objective limiting a participle. 

We never thought of them coming so soon. 

Them is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the per- 
sons spoken of, (5) with which its agrees in the (6) third, (7) 
plural, (8) common, (9) Rule V, (10) objective, (11) limiting 
the participle 'coming,' used by enallage for the possessive, 
Arts. 329 and 1060. 



1 For the parsing of it in this sentence, see it introductory, Sec. 1240. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 257 

1281. Objective in the predicate with a participle. 

I never thought of its being him. 

Him is a (1) pronoun, (2) personal, (4) its antecedent the person 
spoken of, (5) with which it agrees in the (6) third, (7) sin- 
gular, (8) masculine, (9) Rule V, (10) objective, (11) used by 
enallage for the nominative he in the expanded form of the 
sentence, 'I never thought that it was he.' 

ARTICLES. 

1282. Programme for parsing articles. 

(1) Species? (2) Class? (3) Construction? (4) Rule. 

1283. Definite article. 

The horse ran away. 
The is an (1) article, (2) definite, (3) limits 'horse,' (4) Rule I. 

1284. Indefinite article. 

The boy was making a sled. 
A is an (1) article, (2) indefinite, (3) limits 'sled,' (4) Rule I. 

ADJECTIVES. 

1285. Programme for parsing adjectives. 

(1) Species? (2) Class? (3) (Sub-class?) (4) (Degree of 
Comparison?) (5) (Number?) (6) Construction? (7) Rule? 

1286. Descriptive adjective. 

A white flag was displayed by the garrison. 

White is an (1) adjective, (2) descriptive, (6) limits 'flag,' (7) 
Rule 1. 

1287. Adjective in the predicate. 

William is taller than George. 

Taller is an (1) adjective, (2) descriptive, (4) comparative, (6) 
in predicate with the intransitive verb is, limiting its subject, 
William, (7) Rule 1. 

H. Gram. — 22. 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1288. Pronominal adjective. 

Each may report for himself. 

Each is an (1) adjective, (2) pronominal, (6) limits ' person ' un- 
derstood, (7) Rule I. 

I28g. Reciprocal pronominal adjectives. 

Let them assist one another in the work. 

Let them assist one [person] another [person] in the 
work. 

One is an (1) adjective, (2) pronominal, (6) limits 'person' un- 
derstood, (7) Rule I. 

Person (understood) is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) 
singular, (6) common, (7) objective, (8) in apposition with 
'them,' (9) Rule XIII. 

Another is an (1) adjective, (2) pronominal, (6) limits 'person' 
understood, (7) Rule I. 

Person (understood) is a (1) noun, (2) common, (4) third, (5) 
singular, (6) common, (7) objective, (8) object of the active 
transitive verb 'assist,' (9) Rule XVII. 

1290. Pronominal adjective with the possessive sign. 

I exhort you to be each others joy. 

I exhort you to be each [person] [the] other [per- 
son]^ joy. 

Other's is an (1) adjective, (2) pronominal, (6) limits 'person' 
(understood), the possessive sign being transferred from 'per- 
son' to 'other,' Art. 494. 

1291. Numeral adjective. 

Five men were injured by the accident. 

Five is an (1) adjective, (2) numeral, (3) cardinal, (6) limits 'men,' 
(7) Rule I. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 259 

VERBS. 
FINITE MODES. 
I2Q2. Programme for Parsing Verbs. 

(i) Species? Classes?! ( 2 ) Re S ularit y ? I (4) (Principal Parts?) 
w F 1(3) Transivity? J v v F J 

(5) (Style?) (6) Voice? (7) Mode? (8) Tense? (9) Per- 
son? (10) Number? (11) Construction? (12) Rule? 

1293. Ordinary style; active voice. 

The orator of the occasion prepared a speech. 

Prepared is a (1) verb, (2) regular, (3) transitive, (6) active, (7) 
indicative, (8) past tense, (9) third, (10) singular, (11) agree- 
ing with its subject, * orator,' (12) Rule IX. 

We have never seen a more auspicious beginning. 

Have seen is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) transitive, (4) see, saw, 
seen, (6) active, (7) indicative, (8) present perfect, (9) first, 

(10) plural, (11) agreeing with its subject, 'we,' (12) Rule IX. 

The children may go and play. 

May go is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) intransitive, (4) go, went, 
gone, (6) active, (7) potential, (8) present, (9) third, (10) plural, 

(11) agreeing with its subject, ' children,' (12) Rule IX. 

Let them depart in peace. 

Let is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) transitive, (4) let, let, let, (6) 
active, (7) imperative, (8) present, (9) second, (10) plural, (11) 
agreeing with its subject, ' you,' understood, (12) Rule IX. 

1294- Ordinary style; passive voice. 

Preparations for the journey were already made by 
the party. 

Were made is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) transitive, (4) make, 
made, made, (6) passive, (7) indicative, (8) past, (9) third, (10) 
plural, (11) agreeing with its subject, 'preparations,' (12) Rule 
IX. 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1295. Compound verbs: passive voice. 

James was often laughed at for his awkwardness. 

Was laughed at is a (1) verb, (2) regular, (3) transitive, (6) passive, 

(7) indicative, (8) past, (9) third, (10) singular, (11) agreeing 
with its subject, * James,' (12) Rule IX. 

1296. Complex verbs: passive voice. 

The farm has not yet been taken possession of by its 
owner. 

Has been taken possession of is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) 
transitive, (4) take, took, taken, (6) passive, (7) indicative, (8) 
present perfect, (9) third, (10) singular, (11) agreeing with its 
subject, 'farm,' (12) Rule IX. 

1297. Solemn style. 

Thou, even thou, art Lord alone. 

Art is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) intransitive, (4) be, was, been, 
(5) solemn style, (6) active, (7) indicative, (8) present, (9) second, 
(10) singular, (11) agreeing with its subject, 'thou,' (12) Rule 
IX. 

1298. Emphatic style. 

The pupils certainly did succeed well in the effort. 

Did succeed is a (1) verb, (2) regular, (3) intransitive, (5) em- 
phatic style, (6) active, (7) indicative, (8) past, (9) third, (10) 
plural, agreeing with its subject, 'pupils,' (12) Rule IX. 

1299- Progressive style. 

I was writing a letter when my friend called. 

Was writing is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, (3) transitive, (4) write, 
wrote, written, (5) progressive style, (6) active, (7) indicative, 

(8) past, (9) first, (10) singular, (11) agreeing with its subject, 
'I,' Rule IX. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 261 



INFINITIVES. 

1300. Programme for parsing infinitives and participles. 

(1) Species? (2) Classes? (3) Principal Parts? (4) Voice? 
(5) Mode? (6) Tense? (7) Construction? (8) Rule? 

1 30 1. With the construction of nouns. 

1302. Infinitive subject of a finite verb. 

To think clearly is a necessary qualification of a 
business man. 

To think is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, transitive, (3) think, thought, 
thought, (4) active, (5) infinitive, (6) present, (7) construction 
of a noun, (8) Rule XX, subject of 'is,' Rule XV. 

I 3°3- Infinitive, the logical subject of a finite verb. 

It is necessary for students to cultivate mutual for- 
bearance. 

To cultivate is an (1) infinitive, (2) active, (3) present, (4) with the 
construction of a noun, Rule XX, being the logical subject of 
'is,' Rule IX, Art. 644. The grammatical subject 'it' is an 
expletive, Rule XXIV. 

1304. Infinitive attribute of a sentence. 

To die is to sleep. 

To sleep is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, intransitive, (3) sleep, slept, 
slept, (4) active, (5) infinitive, (6) present, (7) construction of the 
noun, (8) Rule XX, in the predicate with the intransitive verb 
'is' referring to the same thing as its subject, 'to die,' Rule 
XIV. 

1305. Infinitive object of a transitive verb. 

Boys love to swim. 

To swim is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, intransitive, (3) swim, swam, 
swam, (4) active, (5) infinitive, (6) present, (7) construction of 
a noun, (8) Rule XX, object of the transitive verb 'love,' Rule 
XVII. 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I306. With the construction of an adjective. 

Each one, however humble, has a mission to fulfill. 

To fulfill is a (1) verb, (2) regular, transitive, (4) active, by enal- 
lage for the passive ' to be fulfilled,' (5) infinitive, (6) present, 

(7) construction of an adjective, (8) Rule XX, limits 'mission,' 
Rule I. 

1307- With the construction of adverbs. 

1308. Limiting a verb. 

He immediately returned to assist his companions. 

To assist is a (1) verb, (2) regular, transitive, (4) active, (5) in- 
finitive, (6) present, (7) construction of an adverb of purpose, 

(8) Rule XX, limits 'returned,' Rule II. 

1309. Limiting an adjective. 

The clerk was anxious to secure a situation. 

To secure is a (1) verb, (2) regular, transitive, (4) active, (5) in- 
finitive, (6) present, (7) construction of an adverb of purpose, 
(8) Rule XX, limits 'anxious/ Rule II. 

1310. Limiting an adverb. 

This fruit is ripe enough to use. 

To use is a (1) verb, (2) regular, transitive, (4) active, by enallage 
for the passive 'to be used,' (5) infinitive, (6) present, (7) 
construction of an adverb of purpose, (8) Rule XX, limits 
'enough,' Rule II. 

PARTICIPLES. 

131 1. With the construction of nouns. 

13 1 2. Subject of a finite verb. 

Playing croquet is a pleasant pastime. 

Playing is a (1) verb, (2) regular, (3) intransitive, (4) active, (5) 
participial, (6) present, (7) construction of a noun, (8) Rule 
XX, subject of 'is,' Rule XV. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 263 

1 3 1 3- Attribute of a sentence. 

Reading is not understanding. 

Understanding is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, transitive, (4) active, 
(5) participial, (6) present, (7) construction of a noun, (8) Rule 
XX, in the predicate with the intransitive verb 'is,' referring 
to the same thing as its subject, 'reading,' Rule XIV. 

1314- Object of a transitive verb. 

Commence reading on the tenth page. 

Reading is a (1) verb, (2) irregular, transitive, (3) read, read, read, 
(4) active, (5) participial, (6) present, (7) construction of a noun, 
(8) Rule XX, object of 'commence,' Rule XVII. 

1 3 1 5- Object of a preposition. 

The enemy desisted from firing on the town, after 
having been repulsed in the attack. 

Having been repulsed is a (1) verb, (2) regular, transitive, (4) 
passive, (5) participial, (6) perfect, (7) construction of a noun, 
(8) Rule XX, object of the preposition 'after,' Rule XVIII. 

13 1 6. With the construction of an adjective. 
I 3 I 7- Participle directly limiting its noun. 

A cause based on principles of right ought not to 
rely on force. 

Based is a (1) verb. (2) regular, transitive, (4) passive, (5) parti- 
cipial, (6) past, (7) construction of an adjective, (8) Rule XX, 
limits 'cause,' Rule I. 

1318. Participle in the predicate. 

He seemed not well instructed. 

Instructed is a (1) verb, (2) regular, transitive, (4) passive, (5) 
participial, (6) past, (7) construction of an adjective, (8) Rule 
XX, in the predicate limiting 'he,' Rule I. 

1319* With the construction of an adverb. 

The pupils came hurrying into the room. 



264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hurrying is a (1) verb, (2) regular, intransitive, (4) active, (5) par- 
ticipial, (6) present, (7) construction of an adverb, (8) Rule XX, 
limits 'came,' Rule II. 

ADVERBS. 

1320. Programme for parsing adverbs. 

(1) Specks? (2) Class? (3) Degree of comparison ? (4) Con- 
struction? (5) Rule? 

MODIFYING ADVERBS. 

1321. Limiting a verb. 

The orator dwelt pathetically on the wrongs of his 
nation. 

Pathetically is an (1) adverb, (2) of manner, (4) limits * dwelt,' 
(5) Rule II. 

1322. Limiting an adjective. 

The stranger wore a remarkably tall hat. 

Remarkably is an (1) adverb, (2) of degree, (4) limits ' tall,' (5) 
Rule II. 

I 3 2 3* Limiting an adverb. 

He called much the loudest. 

Loudest is an (1) adverb, (2) of manner, (3) superlative, (4) lim- 
iting 'called,' (5) Rule II. 
Much and the are adverbs of degree, limiting 'loudest,' Rule II. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

The exercise will close when the bell rings. 

When is an (1) adverb, (2) of time, (4) limits 'rings,' (5) Rule 
II, Art. 865 ; ' when ' is also the connective of the subordinate 
sentence. 

The camp will be located where the ground is most 
suitable. 



PROGRAMMES AND MODELS FOR PARSING. 265 

Where is an (1) adverb, (2) of place, (4) limits 'is,' (5) Rule II, 
Art. 865; 'where' is also the connective of the subordinate 
sentence. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

1324. Programme for parsing prepositions. 

(1) Species? (2) Class? (3) Relation? (4) Rule. 

1325. Simple prepositions. 

The snowflakes float through the air. 

Through is a (1) preposition, (3) shows the relation of 'air* to 
■ float,' (4) Rule IV. 

He came as an embassador. 

As is a (1) preposition, (3) shows the relation of * embassador ' to 
'came,' (4) Rule IV, Art. 975, remark. 

Remark. — 'As' in this sentence is equivalent to * in the relation 
of,' a complex preposition. 

1326. Compound prepositions. 

He jumped aboard of the train at the last moment. 

Aboard of is a (1) preposition, (2) compound, (3) shows the re- 
lation of * train' to * jumped,' (4) Rule IV. 

1327. Complex prepositions. 

Little need be said in regard to his previous career. 

In regard to is a (1) preposition, (2) complex, (3) shows the re- 
lation of 'career' to 'said,' (4) Rule IV. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

1328. Programme for parsing conjunctions. 

(1) Species? (2) Class? (3) (Sub-class?) (4) Connection? (5) 
Rule? 

H. Gram. — 23. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1329. Co-ordinate conjunctions. 

The team ran away and broke the wagon. 

And is a (1) conjunction, (2) co-ordinate, (4) connects the sen- 
tences 'The team ran away' and ' [the team] broke the wagon,' 
(5) Rule III. 

1 330. Subordinate conjunctions. 

The attack was unsuccessful because the general's 
orders were misunderstood 

Because is a (1) conjunction, (2) subordinate, (4) connects the 
sentences, 'The attack was unsuccessful' and 'the general's 
orders were misunderstood,' (5) Rule III. 

I 33 I - Correlative conjunctions. 

Both the vessel and the cargo were a total loss. 

Both and and are (1) conjunctions, (2) co-ordinate, (3) correla- 
tive, (4) together they connect 'vessel' and 'cargo,' (5) Rule 
III, Art. 780. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

1332. Programme for parsing interjections. 

(1) Species? (2) Construction? (3) Rule? 

Hark! did you hear that cry? 

Hark is an (1) interjection, (2) used independently, (3) Rule 
XXIII. 



INDEX. 



A with few and little, 815. 

Abridged Sentence, absolute, 1229; 
adjective, 1224 ; adverbial, 1225; classes, 
1221; defined, 1220 ; expanded, 650; in- 
finitive, 1227; participial, 1228; sub- 
classes, 1222; substantive, 1223. 

Abridgment, defined, 1219. 

Active Voice (see Voice). 

Accent, common, 59; defined, 58; dis- 
criminative, 60 ; emphatic, 61 ; marks, 
use of, poetic, 62 ; primary, 106, rem. ; 
secondary, 106, rem. 

Adjectives, apparently become 
nouns, 445 ; as nouns, 440 ; become ad- 
verbs, 449; cardinal, 459 ; comparison, 
473; compounded, 438; construction, 
827 ; defective, 480 ; defined, 436 ; errors 
in use of, 841 ; in comparison after 
than, 833; independent, 832; instead 
of adverbs, 844; limiting adjectives, 
830; modifications, 463; number, 464; 
numeral, 458; one as a noun, 493; 
ordinal, 460 ; other parts of speech 
used as, 439 ; parsed, descriptive, 1285 ; 
pronominal, 1288; pronom. in poss., 
1290; reciprocal, 1289; participial, 453 ; 
participial distinguished from parti- 
ciples, 454; peculiarities of construc- 
tion, 489; pronominal, defined, 455; 
pronominal, list of, 457; proper, re- 
dundant, 478 ; two forms of compari- 
son, 485 ; with intransitive verbs, 829. 

Adverbs, apparently limit nouns, 859 ; 
as other parts of speech, 862; 715; 
comparison, 737; conjunctive, 727; 
defined. 711 ; errors in use of, 871 ; for 
adjectives, 872; formation, 729; how 
parsed in comparisons. 486 ; independ- 
ent, 743 ; limit prepositional phrases, 
860; limit sentences, 861; may limit 



what, 712; modifications, 736; parsed, 
1320; peculiarities, 740; position. 853; 
sub-classes, 716. 

Adverbial Phrases, 714. 

Allegory, defined, 1124. 

Amen, how used, 743. 

Anadiplosis, defined, 1116. 

Analysis, defined, 1159 ; diagrammed 
notation of, 1199 ; of abridged sen- 
tences, 1229; of double relatives, dia- 
grammed, 1203 ; written, 1212 ; of predi- 
cate constructions, diagrammed, 1205; 
written, 1214; of second and third 
class obj. elements, diagrammed, 1204 ; 
written, 1213; of simple sentences, 
diagrammed, 1198; written, 1208; of 
complex sentences, diagrammed, 
1200; written, 1209; of compound sen- 
tences, diagrammed, 1201; written, 
1210; of partial compound sentences, 
diagrammed, 1202; written, 1211 ; ver- 
bal programme for, 1206. 

Anaphora, defined, 1117. 

Antecedent, of a pronoun, defined, 
254; may be what, 255; position, 256. 

Antithesis, defined, 1134. 

Anti-climax, defined, 1136. 

Antonomasia, defined, 1141 ; examples, 
1141. 

Apostrophe, defined, 1130; example, 
1130 ; mark, use of in possessives, 225. 

Aphthong, defined, 73. 

Apheresis, defined. 1102. 

Apocope, defined, 1104. 

Archaism, defined, 1100. 

Articles, before a vowel or consonant, 
505 ; classes, 498 ; defined, 496 ; definite, 
derivation, 501 ; indefinite, derivation, 
504; in comparison. 813; parsed, 1282; 
the. denoting a class. 816 ; use of, with 
appositives, 812 ; with plurals 815. 
(267) 



268 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Articulation, defined, 57. 

As, as an adv., 745; as a preposition, 
746, 1325; as a relative, 274; used with 
so-called appositives, 975. 

As and Like, 876. 

Aspirate, obstructed, 46 ; pure, 45. 

Asyndeton, defined, 1112. 

Attribute, can not be an adverb, 552 ; 
defined, 1181 ; may be what, 551 ; of an 
abridged clause in the objective, 1227. 

Auxiliaries, 678; as principal verbs, 
681 ; had, should, and would, 685 ; hav- 
ing participles, 683; not used as prin- 
cipal verbs, 670; origin, 682. 



Base, of a syllable, 87; of compound 

word, 96 ; of derivative, 98. 
Bid, dare, feel, etc., without infinitive 

sign, 1070. 
Breve, use of, 1152. 



Capitals, rules for use of, 118. 

Caret, 1150. 

Case, absolute, 214 ; absolute of pro- 
nouns, 1076 ; nominative, use of, 207. 

Catachresis, defined, 1140. 

Climax, defined, 1135 ; examples, 1135. 

Coalescent, defined, 42, 

Colon, use of, 1147. 

Comparison, degrees of, 467; of two 
objects by comp. or superl., 470 ; terms 
of include what, 836. 

Comma, use of, 1147. 

Conjugation, defined, 695; of verb be, 
708 ; of verb love, 709. 

Conjunctions, classes, 768 ; co-ordi- 
nate, 770; copulative, 773 ; correlative, 
780 ; defined, 767 ; disjunctive, 774 ; in- 
troductory, 778; list of, 776; parsed, 
1318 ; peculiarities of, 778 ; subordi- 
nate. 771 ; use of, 880. 

Connective, co-ordinate, 1196 ; defined, 
1194 ; subordinate, 1197. 

Consequent or Subsequent, 898. 

Consonant, defined, 72. 

Continuant, 52. 

Copula, defined, 1182. 



Dashes, use of, 1147. 
Declension, of nouns, 252; of pro- 
nouns, 310. 
Dental, defined, 48. 
Derivative Word, base of , 98 ; defined, 



95 ; formation with prefix and suffix, 

100. 
Dier^esis, defined, 1151. 
Diagrammed Analysis, 1198. 
Digraph, combined, 79 ; conjoined, 76 ; 

consonant, defined, 78 ; disjoined, 77 ; 

vowel, 75. 
Diphthongs, 74. 
Dissyllables, 103. 
Dictation Exercise, 117. 
Double Relative, 277; parsed, 1252. 
Double Comparatives and Superla, 

tives, 845. 

E 

Each Other, 493 ; parsed, 1290. 

Either, referring to more than two 
objects, 840. 

Elements, sentential, adjective, ad- 
verbial, 1176; complex, 1186; com- 
pound, 1187 ; objective, 1190 ; of the first 
class, 1191 ; second class, 1192 ; third 
class. 1193; principal, 1177; simple, 
1185; subordinate, 1184. 

Ellipsis, defined, 1111. 

Enallage, defined, 1119 ; obj. by for 
nom., 324 ; for possessive, 329. 

Epizeuxis, defined, 1115. 

Etymology, defined, 25. 

Euphemism, defined, 1139. 

Ever and Never, use of, 870. 

Exclamations, defined, 1132. 

Expletives, 1093. 



Figures, classes, 1097; of etymology, 
1101 ; of orthography, 1098; of rhetoric, 
121; of syntax, 1110. 

First Two, etc., 826. 

For as an introductory expletive, 763. 

G 

Gender, as applied to animals and 
young children, 199; common, 195; de- 
fined, 188 ; feminine, 193 ; masculine, 
190 ; neuter, 196 ; neuter becomes mas- 
culine or feminine, 198; of personal 
pronouns, 295. 

Grammar, divisions of, 20; English, 
22; general, 20; particular, 21. 

Guttural, defined, 50. 



Hyperbaton, defined, 1118. 
Hyperbole, defined, 1127. 
Hyphen, omitted in compounds, 235; 
use of, 1155. 



INDEX. 



269 



Imperative Mode (see Mode). 

Independent Constructions, nom- 
inative, parsed, 1253; obj., 1277. 

Index, use of. 1157. 

Infinitive, as a noun, adjective, or 
adverb, 1044 ; as an element of tbe sec- 
ond class, 119*2 ; as a verb, 10-52; attri- 
bute, 635; constructions, 1042; con- 
struction of adj., 636; denoting pur- 
pose, 1050; bas no case, 633; in com- 
parisons, 1051; introduced by for, 644; 
limiting an adjective, 637; limiting 
an adverb, 637; limiting a verb, 637; 
modes, 629; not absolute, 641; object 
of a verb, 635; sign, omission of , 576, 
634; after have, 1074; riter need, 1070; 
after passive of bid, dare, etc., 1071; 
subject, 646; subject of finite verb, 

644 ; time of, 643 ; used as logical sub., 

645 ; with the verb be, 1045. 
Inflection, defined, 696 ; of be, 70S. 
Interjections, defined, 7S2 ; followed 

by pronoun, 1092; list of, 7S6 ; parsed, 
1332 ; rule, 1089 ; use of, 783, 1091. 

Interrogation, defined, 1133; point, 
1147. 

Interrogative Pronouns, defined, 
257; parsed, 1254; parsed in indirect 
questions, 1255. 

Intransitive Verbs, have no pas- 
sive, 571. 

Irregular and Eedundant Verbs, 
710. 

Irony, defined, 1128. 

It as a nominative expletive, 1249 ; ex- 
pletive obj.. 1275 ; for obvious ant. un- 
derstood, 303; introductory, 12-30; in- 
troductory expletive. 30-5; introduces 
ant. of diff. per., num., gen., 915 ; sug- 
gestive, 1251 ; used for animals and 
children, 301 ; uses of, 300. 



Labial, defined. 47. 

Language, alphabetic, 16; artificial. 8; 
diversity, 3; equivocal, 17; gesticu- 
late, 19; hieroglyphic. 14; highest 
development of. 4 ; history, 1 ; natural, 
7; origin, 1: phonic, 12; pictorial, 13; 
spoken, 1 ; syllabic, 15; symbolic. 11; 
unequivocal, 18; local, 9; written, 10. 

Letters, defined, 67; grammatical 
forms. 69 ; power, 70 ; sounds, drill on. 
63: typical forms. G8. 

Lexicography, defined. 26. 



Like and As, 870. 
Liquid, defined, 53. 
Litotes, defined, 1138. 

M 

Macron, use of, 1152. 

Many a, parsed, 495. 

Metaphor, defined, 1123. 

Metonymy, defined, 1125. 

Mimesis, defined, 1099. 

Mine. Thine, Yours, etc., 315. 

Modes, classes, 577 ; finite, defined, 578. 
infinitive, 629 ; names, 630. 

Mode, imperative, 589 ; referring to the 
future, 619; sign of, 590; subject in 
third person, 591; indicative, 579; 
use. 579; infinitive constructions, 635; 
tenses, 633; tense signs, 633; particip- 
ial, 651; tenses, 651; tense signs, 651; 
potential, 580 ; signs, 612 ; use, 60S ; sub- 
junctive, 583; implies what, 586; ob- 
solescent, 588 ; signs of, 584. 

Monosyllable, defined, 102. 



Nasal, defined, 54. 

Need, peculiarities in agreement, 940. 

Negatives, use of, 866. 

Never and Ever, use of, 870. 

No, how used. 864. 

Nominative, absolute, 1076 ; parsed, by 
direct address, 1258; by exclamation, 
1259; by inscription, 1260; by pleonasm, 
1251 ; with a participle, 1252 ; in appo- 
sition, 210, 963; parsed, 1246; with a 
phrase, 1247; with a sentence, 1248; 
with a single word, 1246; in the predi- 
cate, 209,977; in the predicate with a 
participle, parsed, 1257; number of 
constructions, dependent, 207; inde- 
pendent, 213; parsed, 1234; subject of 
a finite verb, 208, 986. 

Nouns, abstract, 14S; collective, 149; 
classes, 142 ; common, become proper, 
152; begin with capital, 145; sub-classes, 
147; declension. 252 ; baving two plur- 
als of diff. significations, 1S1 ; in appo- 
sition, 963; in the first person, const, 
of, 159; in the second person, const, 
of, 161 : in the third person, const, of, 
165 : in the predicate, 166 ; plurals, how 
formed, 174; of compounds, 182; of 
foreign nouns, 185; of letters, 186; of 
names with titles, 183; singular and 
plural alike, 184; two names forming 



270 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



parsed, 144: verbal, 150; wanting 

plural, 170: wanting singular, 173; 

what may be used as, 141. 
Number, as applied to auxiliaries, 628; 

as applied to verbs, 621 : formation, 174 ; 

plural, singular, 169. 
Numeral Adjectives, 458. 



Obelisk or Dagger, double, 1157 

Objective Case, by enallage, parsed, 
for nominative absolute, 326; in the 
predicate with finite verb, 327 ; in the 
predicate with participle, limiting 
a participle, 329; subject of finite 
verb, 325; whom for who, 328; con- 
structions, 238 ; denoting time, weight, 
etc., so-called independent, 247; in- 
troductory. 323; of kindred signifi- 
cation. 1014; of pronouns, peculiari- 
ties, 321: parsed, in apposition, 244; 
predicate with infinitive, 243: subject 
of infinitive, 241 ; subject of infinitive 
can not be object of preposition, 1001 ; 
with causative verbs, 1015. 

Object. of a preposition, 1017, of a tran 
sitive verb 1003. 

Objects, two with verbs of asking, 
teaching, etc , 1011. 

One another, 838. 

One, as a pronominal. 494. 

One, each, other, parsed, 493. 

One, two, etc., with first and last, 492. 

Only, how used, 858. 

Organs of Speech, articulatory, 33; 
classes, 33; defined, 32; respiratory, 
35; vocal, 34. 

Orthoepy conspectus of, 15. 

Orthography, defined, 66; teaching 
by chart. 111 ; teaching by deriva- 
tives. 112. 

Ought peculiarities in agreement, 539, 
945. 



Palatal, defined, 49. 

Paragoge, defined, 1106. 

Paragraph, use of , 1157. 

Paralepsis, defined, 1137. 

Parallel, use of. 1157. 

Parenthesis, use of, 1147. 

Parenthetical Marks. 1147. 

Paronomasia, defined, 1142. 

Parsing, exercises for, 333 ; of adj.. 1285 ; 
of adv 1320; of art., 1282: of conj., 
1328; of interjection, 1332; of nouns 



and pronouns, 1242; of prep., 1324; of 
verbs, 1292. 

Participles, as attributes, 1062; as 
nouns, adj., and adv., 1057; become 
nouns, 151 ; become other parts of 
speech, 1061 ; classes, 651 ; construc- 
tions, 661, 1042; errors in use of, 
1064; have no cases, 665; how dis- 
tinguished, 652 ; 659 ; parsed, attri- 
bute, 1313; construction of, 1318; of 
adverb, 1319; object of preposition, 
1315; object of verb, 1314; subject of 
finite verb, 1312 ; passive, belong only 
to transitive verbs, 656 ; preceded by 
art. or adj., 659; present active in a 
passive sense, 1063 ; signs, 651 ; subject 
of in poss. or the obj., 1060 ; tenses, 651 ; 
time of, 666 ; used in conjugation, 652. 

Passive Voice (see Voice). 

Pel, 114. 

Period, 1146. 

Persons, first, 157 ; in all constructions, 
165; of auxiliaries, 628; of nouns, 155; 
of verbs, 620; second, 160; third, 163; 
third for first and second, 164. 

Personal Pronouns, discussion, 258; 
(see Pronoun). 

Personification, defined, 1129. 

Phenicia, letters brought from by Cad- 
mus, 2. 

Pleonasm, defined, 1113. 

Points used in Punctuation, 1146. 

Possessive Case, constructions, 220; 
defined, 219; expletive. 320; forma- 
tion, 225; introductory, 318; of ir- 
regular plurals, 226; of nouns in sin- 
gular, 225; of plurals like singular, 
229; of pronouns, peculiarities, 311; 
parsed, limiting noun of diff. signif., 
1263; limiting noun understood, 1264; 
limiting noun of same signif., 1268; 
limiting participle, 224, 1255; position 
of, 1032; rule, 1031 ; sign when several 
nouns in the poss., 1035; sign of, with 
appositives, 232; with compounds, 
231; is what, 230; with letters, 228; 
with plurals, 230; omitted when, 207, 
1035; slang, 234: suggestive. 319; with 
limited nouns understood, 233. 

Possessives, in the predicate, 312; 
mine, thine, etc.. 312. 

Potential Mode (see Mode). 

Predicate Noun or Pronoun, 978; 
rule, 977; use of , 982; with Infinitives 
and participles, 984. 

Prefix, defined, 100. 



INDEX. 



271 



Press, as a root, 115. 

Prepositions, alphabetical list of, 
758 ; classes, 748 ; /or, introductory, 763 ; 
formation, 757 ; how used, 903 ; miscel- 
laneous relations of, 756 ; parsed, com- 
plex, 1317; compound, 1316; simple, 
1315 ; peculiarities of, 762 ; sub-classes, 
750; two with one object, 1029. 

Prepositional Phrases, 1027. 

Principal Parts, are what, 672; how 
used, 675 ; signs, 677. 

Programmes for Parsing, adjectives, 
1285 ; adverbs, 1320 ; articles, 1282 ; con- 
junctions, 1328; interjections, 1332; 
nouns, 1232; prepositions, 1324; pro- 
nouns, 1233 ; verbs, 1292. 

Pronominal Adjectives, denned, 455; 
list of, 457. 

Pronominals, each, either, neither, 839. 

Pronouns, agreement with antecedent, 
294,910; agreement with nouns used 
by personification, metaphor, etc., 
916; antecedent of, 254; antecedents 
of connected by and, 926 ; antecedents 
preceded by each, every, etc., 928; ante- 
cedents connected by as well as, 928; 
antecedents connected by or and nor, 
932; classes, 257; in apposition, 929; in 
the predicate, 327; interrogative 
agreement with antecedent un- 
known, 297; mistaken for double 
relative, 290; parsed, 1254; limiting a 
participle, 329, 1060 ; masculine includ- 
ing both genders, 922; modifications, 
293; order of in a sentence, 308; per- 
sonal, relative, compound, 275 ; 
double, 251; parsed, 1252; simple, 264; 
referring to collective nouns, 924; 
refer to antecedents limited by many 
a, 921; simple and compound, 259; 
thou for you, 299 ; use of same style, 
913 ; use of we for I, 298. 

Pronunciation, defined, 56; methods 
of teaching, 63. 

Prosody, defined, 1095. 

Prosthesis, defined, 1105. 

Punctuation, classes of, 1144; defined, 
1143 ; etymological, 1148; for reference, 
1157 ; for the printer, 1158 ; points used, 
1146 ; rhetorical, 1145 ; rules for, 1U7. 

Q 
Quotation Marks, 1147. 

R 

Reciprocals, Each Other, One Another, 



Relative Pronouns, double (see Pro- 
noun). 

Relative What, 278. 

Rules for Spelling, general, 110; 
special, 116. 

Rules for Punctuation, 1147. 

Rules for use of Capitals, 118. 

Rules of Syntax, act. verbs, bid, dare, 
etc., 1070; appositives, 963; articles 
and adjectives, 797; adverbs, 852; 
classified, p. 201 ; conjunctions, 878 ; ex- 
pletives, 1093; infinitives and par- 
ticiples, 1042; interjections, 1089; 110m. 
abs., 1076; obj. of prep., 1017; obj. of 
trans, verb, 1003 ; possessive case, 1031 ; 
predicate, 977 ; preposition, 897 ; pro- 
nouns agree with ant., 910; with col- 
lective noun, 924. 

S 

Section Mark, use of, 1157. 

Sentences, abridged, 1164; complex, 
1165; complete, 1163; compound, 1168; 
co-ordinate, 1171; declarative, 1172; 
imperative, 1173; interrogative, 1174; 
leading, 1170; partial comp., 1169; 
principal, 1166; simple, 1162; subordi- 
nate, 1167. 

Semicolon, use of, 1146. 

Sex, grammatical distinctions of, 200. 

Simile, defined, 1122. 

Sound, articulate, 37; aspirate, 44; de- 
fined, 31; limit of vibration, 31; rate 
of progress, 31; subvocal, 43; vocal, 
39; voiced, 38. 

Sounds, cognate, 55; drill on, 63; where 
obstructed, 48. 

Speech, organs of, 32. 

Spelling, defined, 107; general rules 
for, 110; orthographies, 108; phonic, 
109 ; special rules for, 116. 

Splitting Particles, 1029. 

Styles of Verbs, emphatic, 561 ; int. 
and neg., 565; ordinary, 559; progres- 
sive, 563 ; solemn, 560. 

Subject, defined, 1178; grammatical, 
1217; logical, 1216; of finite verb, 986; 
parsed, 1244; of inf., 9C9; of part., 667; 
of subordinate clause in noni., 1233; 
'n obj,, 1225; in poss., 1224, 

Subsequent or Consequent, 899. 

Subvocal, defined, 43. 

Subjunctive Mode (see Mode). 

Such A, parsed, 495. 

Syllable, accented, 106; antecedent, 
89 ; antepenult, 85 ; base of, 87 ; classes, 



272 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



82; consequent, 96; penultimate, 84; 

preantepen ultimate, 86; ultimate, 83. 
Svi.lep.sis, defined, 11*20. 
Synecdoche, defined. 1126. 
svxekesis, defined. 1108. 
Syncope. defined ; 1103. 
Synopsis, how given, 697, 
Syntax, defined, 27 ; rules of, 797. 



Teaching Orthography, advanced 
methods, 111. 

T&N8B. future 601 ; i'uture-perfect, 605; 
historical present. 593 ; past, 600 ; past- 
perfect, 604; present, 596; present ex- 
presses general truths, 597; present- 
perfect, 602. 

Tenses, of the imp., 613; of the iiid., 
how used. 597; signs of, 606: of the 
part., signs of, 651; of the potential, 
how used, 603 ; signs of, 612 ; of the sub- 
junctive, how used. 614; signs of, 617. 

Terms of Comparison, include what, 
835; two referring jointly to another 
term, 890. 

Than in Comparisons, 833. 

That, as a conjunction. 272; as an ex- 
pletive, 1093 ; as an objective, 273 ; as a 
pronom. adj., 271 ; as a relative, 273. 

The, as an adverb, 744. 

There, as an expletive, 1093. 

Tilde, 1148. 

These Kind. Those Sort, 848. 

This and That, These and Those, ref- 
erence of, 837. 

This Here, That There, 847. 

Tmesis, defined. 1109. 

To, sign of the infinitive, 640. 

Trigbaph, disjoined, 81 ; vowel, 80. 

Trisyllable, 104. 

Two PlBST, Two Last, 826. 

V 

Verbs, attribute, 1181; complex. 1296 ; 

compound. 1295; copulative, 1182; 

defective, 381; finite, 

934; having collective 



classes 

agreement 



noun for sub., 948; having phrases, 
for sub's., 956; having sub's, of dif- 
ferent persons, 960; forms with dif- 
ferent persons, 623; impersonal, 540; 
intr. all act., 568; intransitive, with 
an object, 548 : irregular, how formed, 
535; list of, 710; modifications, 557; of 
making, choosing, etc., 1012; of giv- 
ing, teaching, etc., 1011; person and 
number of. 622 ; prin. pts., 672; redun- 
dant, defined, 541 ; list of, 710 ; regular, 
how formed. 534 ; resolved into copula 
and attribute, 553 ; standing between 
sub's., 955 ; styles of, 558 ; subject may 
be what, 942; transitive, 543; defined, 
543 ; express action, 546 ; voice, 566. 

Vision, defined, 1131. 

Vocal, compound, 41; simple, 40. 

Voice, active, belongs to passive verbs, 
when, 571; changed to the passive, 
1010; in a passive sense, 573; distinc- 
tion in meaning of the active and 
passive, 572; passive, 569; belongs to 
transitive verbs, 570 ; formation, 1010; 
for the act. by enallage, 575; used to 
conceal actor, 574. 

Voice or Vocal Sound, defined, 36. 

Vowel, defined, 71. 

W 

We, used for 1.298. 

What, as a double relative, 278; as an 
interrogative, 290; parsed, 1252. 

Whether, as an interrogative, 291. 

Which, as an interrogative pronom. 
adj., 269; uses of, 267. 

Who. antecedent of, understood, 266; 
interrogative, 288: parsed. 1254, 1255. 

Words, analyzed, as to number of syl- 
lables. 102; compound, 93; base of, 
96; modifier, 97; defined, 91; deriva- 
tive, 91; base of, 98; modifier, 97; 
primitive. 94; simple, 92. 



Y 



Yes, how used, 864. 



ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Publishers, Cincinnati and New York. 

Murdoch's Analytic A complete and practical exposition of the only 
Elocution truly scientific method of developing the speak- 

ing voice. Fully illustrated by numerous ex- 
tracts from the best sources, to which are added seventy pages of 
carefully selected readings. By James E. Murdoch, Actor, Reader, 
and Instructor of Elocution. i2mo, half roan, 504 pp. Price $1.00; 
postage and mailing, 17 cts. 

Murdoch's Plea for By the same Author. A Plea for the study of 
Spoken Language. Spoken Language ; History of the development 
of the best system of Elocution, including brief 
treatment of systems formerly used, and an Appendix containing Bar- 
ber's Essay on Rhythmus and HUP s Essay on Elocution, l2mo, cloth, 
320 pp. Price $1.00; postage and mailing, 17 cts. 
Venable's School Stage. These Dialogues and Plays submitted 

Venable'S Amateur Actor. to the young people and their advisors, 

Venahlp's Dramatic Soenps are desi g ned to amuse °l uite as much 
vename s uramatic scenes. as t0 instruct . They are derived from 

widely different sources, dramatized from standard works of fiction, and 
their production is practicable in any ordinary school-house or parlor. 

The selections are varied in style and subjects. Plain and full 
directions relative to costumes, properties and stage business are given 
in connection with particular Dialogues and Dramas. 

Either vol., i2mo, cloth, price 60 cts.; postage and mailing, 10 cts. 

Venable'S Standard Many teachers having expressed their desire 

Exhibition Dialoques t ^ iat V ena ble's School Stage, Amateur Actor, and 

.... p. Dramatic Scenes might be obtained in separate 

ana Acting nays. parts and cheaper form) so that sc hools could 

obtain the separate Plays or Dialogues at a very small cost, the Pub- 
lishers take pleasure in offering them in convenient shape. Standard 
Exhibition Dialogues, 30 Nos., each 10 cts., by mail post-paid. 

Kidd'S New Revised edition of Kidd's Elocution, for many years the 
Elocution. popular standard. The New Elocution contains much 
new and important matter; fuller information on essen- 
tial points; a greater number of valuable exercises, and of new and 
appropriate examples for illustration. 504 pp., half roan. Price $1.00; 
postage and mailing, 17 cts. 

McGuffey'S New Two hundred easy and animated exercises for 

Juvenile Speaker. reading or speaking; humorous, instructive, 

grave and gay. A novel and valuable feature 
is the introduction of choruses, to be spoken, read or sung in concert. 
Music adapted to them may be found at the close of the book. i2mo, 
228 pp. Price 40 cts.; postage and mailing, 7 cts. 
McGuffey'8 New A collection embracing choice gems of prose 

Eclectic Speaker. and poetry, both humorous and grave. Selected 

with reference to purity of sentiment, beauty of 
style, real eloquence, interest, and instructiveness of matter; and 
especially for their adaptation for drill in declamation and reading. 
i2mo, cloth, 504 pp. Price 80 cts. Postage and mailing, 14 cts. 



ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. 

Published by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Cincinnati and New York. 

NEW ECLECTIC PENMANSHIP. 

ECLECTIC ELEMENTARY COURSE. 

The three Elementary Copy-Books form a complete series, designed to cover 
the same ground as the first four or five ordinary copy-books. Nos. i and 2 are 
tracing books. Price by mail, post paid, 7 cents. 

ECLECTIC PRIMARY COPY-BOOK. 

A complete primary book for second school year. Contains all the small and 
capital letters and figures. Price by mail, post paid, 7 cents. 

NEW ECLECTIC COPY-BOOKS. Revised and Re-engraved. 

Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, s Boys, 5 Girls, 6 Boys, 6 Girls, 6^, 7 and 8 Boys, 8 Girls, and 
No. 9. Girls' Copy-Books identical, word for word, with the Boys' , but in smaller 
hand-writing. Best paper, engraving, and ruling. 

The simplest, most legible and business-like style of Capitals and Small Let- 
ters is adopted. Each letter is given separately at first, and then in combination ; 
the spacing is open ; analysis simple, and indicated in every letter when first pre- 
sented. Price by mail, post paid, 10 cents. 
ECLECTIC PRACTICE-BOOK. 

With either single or double lines > 24 pp., same size and same paper as Eclectic 
Copy-Books, and designed to be used with them. Price by mail, post paid, 5 cts. 

NEW HAND-BOOK OF ECLECTIC PENMANSHIP. 

A Key to the Eclectic System of Penmanship. A complete description and 
analysis of movement and of the letters, and a brief summary of what is required 
in teaching penmanship. i2mo, cloth. Price 50 cents; postage and mailing, 8 cents. 

ECLECTIC WRITING CARDS. 

72 Nos. on 36 Cards. One Letter or Principle on each Card. Capital Letter 
on one side, Small Letter on the reverse. Each illustration accompanied with 
appropriate explanations and instructions. Size of Cards, 9x13 inches; loop at- 
tached for suspending on the walls. In wooden box, $3.50. 

ECLECTIC ANGULAR HAND. 

A complete course of instruction for ladies in the present fashionable Angular 

Penmanship. Six Copy-Books by Prof. J. P. Gordon. Price by mail, post paid, 10 cts. 

Practice Cards, Four Nos. Price by mail, post paid, 18 cts. 

ECLECTIC GERMAN COPY-BOOKS. 

A new and complete system of German Penmanship, carefully arranged with 
reference to use in American schools, engraved on copper in the best style, printed 
with care on good paper. These books are 7% x S% inches, which is larger than 
any competing series. 5 Nos. Price by mail, post paid, 9 cents. 

ECLECTIC PENS. 

These pens are made by the foremost manufacturer in the world, expressly 
for the scholars using the Eclectic System of Penmanship. No. 100 School Pen. 
Flexible and moderately fine. No. 200 Commercial Pen. Coarser, for business 
writing. No. 300 Extra Fine. Ladies and advanced scholars will find this pen 
admirable for careful writing. Per gross, either number, by mail, post paid, $1.00. 
Sample card by mail on receipt of 10 cents. 



ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. 

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Publishers, Cincinnati and New York. 

SCIENCE. 

ECLECTIC PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

By Russell Hinman. 382 pp., i2mo, with 30 Charts and Maps, 
and 151 Diagrams and other illustrations. A text-book on this im- 
portant subject in a new and convenient form. All irrelevant matter 
is omitted and the pages devoted exclusively to Physical Geography. 
Price, $1.00; postage and mailing, 17 c. 

ELEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 

Designed especially for Young Teachers, by Edwin C. Hewitt, 
author of the Elements of Pedagogy. The book is addressed to young 
teachers who desire the facts of Psychology to aid them in the work 
of the school-room. It is written in a popular style. Special atten- 
tion has been paid to the definitions, making them clear and distinct. 
192 pp., full cloth. Price, 85 c. ; postage and mailing, 14 c. 

NORTON'S PHYSICS. 

Elements of Physics for Academies and Common Schools. By 
S. A. Norton, A. M., Prof, in Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical 
College. i2mo, cloth, 286 pp. Price, 80 c. ; postage and mailing, 13 c. 

NORTON'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

The Elements of Natural Philosophy. By S. A. Norton, A. M. 
A new treatise, embracing latest discoveries to date of publication. 
I2mo, cloth, 458 pp. Price, $1.10; postage and mailing, 18 c. 

NORTON'S CHEMISTRY. 

The Elements of Chemistry. By S. A. Norton, A. M. i2mo, cloth, 
504 pp. Illustrated. New Edition, including Organic Chemistry. Price, 
$1.10; postage and mailing, 18 c. 

ANDREWS'S ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY. 

An Elementary Geology, designed especially for the Interior States. 
By E. B. Andrews, LL. D., late of the Ohio Geological Corps, and 
Professor in Marietta College. i2mo, cloth, 269 pp. and Index. 432 
Illustrations. Price, $1.00; postage and mailing, 17 c. 

GREGORY'S POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

A new Political Economy, by John M. Gregory, LL. D., Ex-Pres. 
Illinois Industrial University. Contains many features of striking 
originality. i2mo, clo., 394 pp. Price, $1.20 ; postage and mailing, 20 c. 

SCHUYLER'S LOGIC. 

The Principles of Logic. By A. Schuyler, LL. D., Pres't of Bald- 
win University; author of Algebra, Trigonometry, Surveying, etc. 
i2mo, cloth, 168 pp. Price, 60 c. ; postage and mailing, 10 c. 

ANDREWS'S CONSTITUTION. 

A Manual of the Constitution of the United States, for the instruc- 
tion of American Students and General Readers in the Duties, Obliga- 
tions and Rights of Citizenship. By the late I. W. Andrews, LL. D. 
Revised to 1888 by the Author. Reset entire and printed from new type. 
i2mo, 408 pp. Price, $1.00; postage and mailing, 17 c. 

" In each aspect of its usefulness, the work can not fail to meet with approval, 
and, as a text-book> it is by all odds the best of its kind." — The Nation. 



ECLECTIC EDUCATIONAL SERIES. 

Published by VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., Cincinnati and New York. 

THALHEIMER'S HISTORICAL SERIES. 

By M. E. Thalheimer, Teacher of History and Composition in 
Packer Collegiate Institute. For Graded Schools, High Schools, 
Academies, and Colleges. These books furnish to teachers, stu- 
dents and general readers the best brief course in History. 

NEW ECLECTIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

This standard history has been thoroughly revised and brought 
down to the latest date. New and beautiful illustrations have been 
introduced, and the style in many places simplified. Brief biographies 
of important persons and fuller details of some events are furnished in 
explanatory notes at the ends of chapters. It is copiously illustrated 
with maps, portraits, etc. The Declaration of Independence and 
Constitution with questions on the same appear in the appendix. Price, 
$1.00; postage and mailing, 17c. 

THALHEIMER'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 

l2mo, 288 pp. New edition in which the narrative is brought down to 
1889. A compact volume, comprehensive in scope, but sufficiently brief 
to be completed in one school term. Its statements of historical facts 
are based upon the studies of the most recent authorities. Reliable 
Maps and pictorial illustrations. Price $1.00; postage and mailing, 17c. 

THALHEIMER'S GENERAL HISTORY. {Revised,) 

121110, 448 pp. Maps and pictorial illustrations. The wants of common 
schools, and those of higher grade unable to give much time to the study of 
history, are here exactly met. The teacher is aided by Review Questions at 
the end of each principal division of the book, and by references to other works 
in which each subject will be found more fully treated. Price, $1.20; postage 
and mailing, 20 c. 

THALHEIMER'S ANCIENT HISTORY. 

A Manual of Ancient History from the Earliest Times to the fall of the 
Western Empire, A. D. 476. 8vo., full cloth, 365 pp., with Pronouncing Vo- 
cabulary and Index. Illustrated with Engravings, Maps and Charts. Price, 
$1.60; postage and mailing, 27 c. 

In compliance with a demand for separate Histories of the Early Eastern 
Monarchies \ of Greece and of Rome, an edition of Thalheimer's Manual 
of Ancient History in three parts has been published. 

Price, 80c. each part ; postage and mailing, 14c. 

THALHEIMER'S MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY. 

A Manual of Mediaeval and Modern History. 8vo., cloth uniform with 
Thalheimer's Ancient History. 455 pp., and very full Index. Numerous 
double-page Maps. A sketch of fourteen centuries, from the fall of one empire 
at Ravenna to the establishment of another at Berlin. Price, $1.60; postage 
and mailing, 27 c. 

ECLECTIC PRIMARY HISTORY 

Of the United States. By Edw. S. ELLIS, Supt. of Schools, Trenton, N. J. 
Profusely illustrated with superior engravings and portraits. Square i2mo, 
full cloth, 224 pp. A most attractive and entertaining volume for pupils 
of Fourth and Fifth Reader Grades. Price, 50 c. ; postage and mailing, 8 c. 



